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THEORY
AND PRACTICE OF STYLISED TRANSLATION ћ. онурбаев, ≈.Ѕочарова,† †Published by Max
Press in 2001 A Case Study of
Biblical and Oriental Poetic Motives in Kahlil GibranТs Prose Poem The
ProphetФby Elena Bocharova & Marklen Konurbayev нига представл¤ет собой первый в –оссии
эксперимент стилизованного перевода художественно-философской поэмы алил¤
ƒжибрана Ђѕророкї, котора¤ стала знаменитой на весь мир еще в начале ’’ века.
Ќаписанна¤ американцем арабского происхождени¤, поэма быстро завоевала
внимание и любовь читателей своими емкими и выразительными обобщени¤ми о
смысле и значении ключевых дл¤ каждого человека пон¤тий Ц жизни, смерти,
любви, вере, семье, дет¤х, молитве, труде и др. —разу после по¤влени¤ поэма
алил¤ ƒжибрана стала американским бест-селлером. ќна была выпущена тиражом в
несколько милионов экземпл¤ров и была практически моментально распродана. нига ƒжибрана наполнена библейскими аллюзи¤ми и
восточными поэтическими мотивами, которые авторы данного пособи¤ попытались
передать в экспериментальном переводе с наибольшей точностью. ќтзывы о книге можно направл¤ть авторам по электронной
почте: marklen@online.ru ©
≈.Ѕочарова, ћ. онурбаев, 2001 г.©† ѕеревод
алил¤ ƒжибрана Ђѕророкї ≈лена Ѕочарова, 2001 г. Introduction
This book is an
attempt to reveal the principal peculiarities of translating a stylized text
of fiction into another language in keeping with its genre characteristics
and its specific УnationalФ and culturally unique УflavourФ. The problem has
become obvious in the second half of the 20th century, when the
English-speaking world witnessed the appearance of literary works (produced
by non-native users of the English language) which demonstrated their authorsТ
ability to incorporate elements of their native (ethnic) cultures in their
otherwise impeccable Уreal English thingФ. Suffice it to mention in this
connection such names as Vikram Seth, Kazuo Ishiguro, Vladimir Nabokov, and
many others. With this basic idea in mind we decided to
take a book written in the 1920s by a Lebanese-born American writer Kahlil
Gibran and subject it to experimental translation into Russian, observing to
our best ability all peculiarities of the author's individual style, the
features of the literary and national traditions he belongs to and other
decorative linguistic means which make this book so closely associated with
Oriental wisdom and yet retaining in it a specific conceptual core which the
Western reader perceived and accepted as something of a value for his own
life Ц in spite of the obvious difference between the author's original
vision of the World† and the society's
he lived in. The book, The Prophet, which has become
a bestseller in the pre-war America is Gibran's best-known work Ц a partly
autobiographical poetic essay, which has been translated into over 20
languages. In fact it echoes a kaleidoscopic range of national Oriental
motives. A closer look at the style and the concept of the book shows that it would be practically impossible
to understand it without having a profound knowledge of its deep linguistic
and cultural background, let alone translate it efficiently into another
language. The Prophet has an
extremely rich Уvertical contextФ which makes understanding of it a real
challenge for a philologist. In this light the principal purpose of the paper
is to study GibranТs work as a unique stylistic phenomenon, an individual
УproduceФ of the writer which incorporates the elements of Oriental wisdom
literature. And here of course the problem of translatability comes to the
fore, for the book definitely contains a set of features (both linguistic and
notional) that should be attended to in the first place if the translator
aims at rendering a specific background flavour, which makes a particular
work of verbal art unforgettable. For a
translator the task of rendering Gibran's work in Russian is of a very great
complexity. Eternal wisdom in such matters as marriage, love, children,
money, etc. is presented to the reader in the form of subtle Oriental
stylisations, thereby imposing on the translator the necessity of finding
similar means in the target language. This small book of ours investigates
how this basic aim of putting together an intricate message and peculiar form
of poetic presentation can be best achieved. * From the
linguistic point of view stylisation is Уan imitation of
a manner, or narrative style, etc, typical of some genre, social milieu, time
in history, etc, usually aiming at creating an impression of authenticityФ
[16]. Normally a writer, aiming at creating the said effect, never tries to
reproduce an exhaustive set of the peculiar genre features of imitated text,
but thinks in terms of the Уnecessary and sufficientФ amount of conceptually
and linguistically specific features bearing the main load in creating a
particular effect. A researcher,
whose task it is to reveal these features, should probably begin by making a
complete list of stylistic devices used by the author, and then consider
their relative functional significance in producing a desired impact. The
results of such study appear to be of the†
highest practical value for a translator, who invariably faces the
problem of the balance between conceptually significant elements and
emotional-expressive УdecoratorsФ. Guided by our
principal purpose, we were certainly supposed first to make a study of the
existing Russian translation of УThe ProphetФ. However, even a cursory glance
at the sole existing Russian translation of the book proved that the latter
was highly unsatisfactory. Not only some of the crucial notions were
distorted or simply left out, and the rules of word collocation and
colligation were violated, the translation definitely lacked the specific
Уcultural flavourФ which is quite perceptibly felt in the book (as one would
feel the Oriental tint in "The Arabian Nights", for example), not
to mention that the general style of the work was far from being solemn and
elevated as it was supposed to be. Even a very brief example is enough to
point out the major drawbacks of the existing translation: Уfragments of
the soulФ was translated as Укусочки душиФ. Bad Russian language irrevocably spoiled the translatorТs work: Угрусть
вошла в негоФ, Унавеки стать залитым в неизменную формуФ, Умолчание
снизошлоФ, Уваше сгибанье в рукахФ, Уработа дл¤ поддержани¤ телаФ, Учаша
обожглась в печиФ, Уищите свободу иметь свою тайнуФ. To prove the
validity of our observations based on the scrupulous study of the original,
we decided to make our own translation of the book taking into account all
those theoretical conclusions that we have come to in this analysis. * These are
briefly the questions that we are trying to answer in our paper. In the first
part we give a theoretic consideration of the basic notions underlying our
research. These notions are: stylisation, functional
style, and genre, and their relation to one
another. In the second chapter of Part I we adduce the terms and the definitions
adopted in this research We also thought it necessary to give a brief account
of the literature that provided clues for the notional analysis of УThe
ProphetФ. In the second
part of the paper we concentrated on the Уvertical contextФ, Уthe particular
historical-philological УinformationФ intrinsically input by the author into
his workФ [17], [23, c.12 - 13]. We tried to see what factors by and large
predetermined the authorТs aesthetic design, and the forms of its expression,
particularly, the genre of the book. Chapter 2 of
the second part provides the linguistic analysis of the book, i.e. the study
of words and syntax. We tried to single out such elements that may be
regarded crucial for creating Уcultural flavourФ and particular style of the
work. In the third
part of the paper we attempted to find the best possible Russian equivalents
of the crucial cultural elements, such as stylistically marked words,
biblical stock phrasing and sentence types. We also analysed various ways of
translating the notions and symbols into Russian. Appendix
includes several chapters translated in keeping with the principles set forth
in the paper. Part I
Prolegomena
to the Study and Translation of Stylised Literary Text
Chapter 1. The Notions of Genre and Stylisation
The definition
of stylisation was never the subject of a great debate among scholars as, for
example, was that of genre. This situation may be accounted for by the fact
that most scholars are unanimous in understanding and, consequently, in
defining stylisation as a method of intentional reproduction of a particular
artistic, social, or cultural material [43]. According to
the Russian academician V.Vinogradov, the notion of literary stylisation
appeared as a result of the Уinterest to the expressive overtones and
stylistic differences, conditioned by the authorТs individual creativity or
the original flavour of this or that cultureЕФ [25, p.544]. Mikhail Bakhtin
wrote in this connection: Уstylisation comes from admiring the aesthetic
perfection of another workЕ Stylisation in a focused way projects the
stylistic peculiarities of the original text on the conceptually new
materialФ [62, p.21]. Thus, the notion of stylisation involves, apart from
purely linguistic aspects, also the social, and cultural sides. A brief insight
into the notionТs evolution history can be found in the book by the Polish
literary critic S. Skwarczyńska УLa stilisation et sa place dans la
science de la literatureФ: УThe word to styliseЕfirst meant Уto form
something in the written formФ. This meaning still exists in the modern
language, and implies the idea of polishing the content while writingЕBut
during the 19th century the word stylisation becomes better
definedЕTo stylise means to adjust consciously your style to the norms of a
perfect, ideal style or a functional style. In this sense the word had spread
widely by the end of the 19th centuryФ [58, p.170]. According to
V.Troitsky, stylisation has presently come to mean Уan imitation of a modelФ,
Уan imitation of the outward form and characteristic features of a style. It
comprises at least two styles Ц Уa prototypeФ style, serving as a model (and
always implied), and the one of an imitator or stylizer, which reproduces the
source styleФ [58, p.169]. The aim of stylisation is to make the imitated
style recognisable. The Linguistic
Encyclopaedic Dictionary singles out the following variations of stylisation:
imitation (when the outward features of a style are being reproduced
without any specially defined artistic purpose, when they organically merge
with the authors individual style so that we no longer feel the difference
between the imitated work and the imitation itself) [19, p.220]; and parody,
when the characteristic features of a УprototypeФ style are intentionally
УhypertrophiedФ aiming at ridiculing this style [52], [19, p.224]. However, there
occur slight differences in terminology among scholars. Speaking of
stylisation as of a Уgenus termФ, Maria†
Verbitskaya, for example, suggests using the term Уimitational genresФ
for denoting parody, periphrasis, imitation, folk tale and so on [23, p.6]. Many scholars
made stylisation a subject of their research on the Russian literature
material. Among such works are the treatises by R. Helgard dedicated to the
style of BazhovТs folk tales, articles on stylisation of speech by A.
Alpatov. Mikhail Bakhtin in some of his books (УLiterature and Aesthetic
IssuesФ is one of them) touched upon stylisation as well. Several pages of
his book on F. DostojevskyТs poetics deal with the Уsecondary natureФ of
stylisation (when a stylised text is perceived as something secondary in
relation to the primary text), and the way this effect of Уsomething
secondaryФ is created in the readerТs conscience. The literary
critic A. Yefimov in his book УStylistics of an Artistic SpeechФ suggests the
following classification of stylisation types: historical, which
involves the reproduction of speech of different epochs; genre
stylisation, which involves the application of the means and methods of
expression, characteristic of a certain genre and is based on the core of
lexis and phraseology as well as sentence structure; and social-speech
stylisation which aims at reproducing speech peculiarities of various
social layers [30, p.95]. Although V.
Troitsky criticizes YefimovТs classification and says that it does not
include all types of stylisation, he offers no alternative
classification.† Recently the interest to stylisation has somewhat increased. More
works on stylisation and its types contribute to the development of this
notion. Focussing on an Уimitational genreФ of parody, a product of
stylisation, M. Verbitskaya in her doctoral thesis develops a theory of the
Уsecondary textФ. A recent thesis of Yu. Flyagina deals with the problem of УsequelsФ
or УcontinuationsФ of the famous works of the English authors, such as Jane
Austen and Charles Dickens. By applying the method of linguopoetic analysis[1]
she tries to find out Уwhether there exists a minimum set of linguistic elements
of the original text, sufficient for its successful stylisationФ [62, p.167].
The scholar suggests the idea that Уin elaborating stylisation, apparently,
the primary role belongs to subconscious understanding and imitation of the
speech structure of the imitated author at the level of simple rhythmical
groups, their properties and alterationsФ [62, p.167].† Finally she comes up with a number of
requirements, or rather indispensable constituents of a successful
stylisation, among which the most crucial for us are: 1)
minimum set of linguistic means, characteristic of the УoriginalФ
text and rendered in stylisation; 2)
key composition elements important for creating associations (lexical
parallels, alike phraseology, similar images); As a general conclusion
we may say that the notion of stylisation deserves more attention on the part
of the scholars, and not only in terms of the possibilities of reproducing
individual style of a particular author or speech peculiarities of a
particular social layer. The idea of genre stylisation based on a certain
literary tradition is no less exciting. *** The notion of
genre is related to the problem of correlation between the content and the
form of a literary work. The matter has been widely discussed by the Russian
and the foreign scholars during the last two centuries. Their studies gave
rise to a variety of independent theories and concepts. It would not be an
overestimation to say that every scholar in this field had his own
understanding of genre, its transformation through literary epochs, methods
of their classification. We can speak only of the very general similarities
of their concepts and views regarding genre. The first point
of disagreement between the scholars comes when genre is regarded as a stable
form of a literary work. The followers of the formalistic theory,
U.N.Tynyanov, N.Pearson, R.Wellek, and O.Warren in their understanding of
genre shared the idea that genre is Уa set of devices and rules, formal
structure of the workФ [68, p.67]. Pearson was even more radical in his
views; he stated the superiority of form over the content: Уthe very essence
of the literary process is to create the formЕ The ultimate goal of an artist
is to create the proper architecture; his creation in not the material, but
the formФ [12, p. 63]. It appears that formalists paid little attention to
the content of a work. Tynyanov in his
turn applied systematic approach to the problem of genre. He came to the
conclusion that it is impossible to give any static definition of genre that
would cover the entire concept. Genre reveals the tendency to transform.
Finally the scholar refuses to regard genre as a stable type of a literary
work. An outstanding
Russian scholar Mikhail Bakhtin, who has made a significant contribution to
the development of the theory of genre, understands the term as a Уtypical
form of the entire literary workФ [20,†
p.279]. He does not stand on formalistic position and sees genres not
as combinations of formal devices, but as Уforms of seeing and realising
certain sides of the worldФ [20, p.332]. Such diversity
of views is understandable: when we deal with imaginative literature (viewed
as an object literary criticism) it is often very difficult to talk of Уthe
stableФ regarding the authorТs imagination and creative power. However, there
is always a certain canon to be followed. Even the most original and unique
work of art inevitably contains elements of the old, traditional together
with the elements of the new and the individual. At this point the scholars
agree on genreТs connection with historical time. In this respect, Tynyanov
viewed genre as Уan element of the genre system of a certain period of timeЕ
What was called an ode in the 20s of the 19th century Ц in
LomonosovТs time was called so according to other characteristicsФ [68,
p.67]. That means that with time genres may change the set of their
characteristics due to the changes in literary process or historical
environment. Mikhail Bakhtin
who emphasised genreТs historical aspect as well, later developed his idea
still further: УDue to its nature, literary genre reflects the most stable,
Уtime honouredФ trends of the literatureТs development. Genre always contains
imperishable archaic elements. Those elements become preserved thanks to
their constant renovation, so to say, modernisation. Genre is always the same
and not the same, both new and old. Genre becomes reborn at each stage of the
development of literature and in each individually created work of a
particular genre. This is the genreТs life. GenreЕalways remembers its past.
Genre represents creative memory in the process of literary developmentФ [19,
p.122]. It is important
that he also mentioned genreТs connection with a certain literary tradition:
УEach new variety of genre, each new work, written within a certain genre,
always enriches the genre, improves and perfects its language. Therefore, it
is very important to know the probable genre sources used by an author, to
know the literary atmosphere in which the work was being created. The more
concrete contacts we reveal, the deeper we can penetrate into the
peculiarities of his genre form and the better we understand the proportion
of traditional and new in his workФ [19, p.183]. The next
extralinguistic factor that determines genre is of a functional nature. It
deals with the functional purport given to the text by the author. The author
starts to write when he wants to say something to the world, share his ideas
with the others. Whatever form of expression he chooses Ц is up to him, for
it is for him to decide in what form his ideas would be best understood by
his readers. Therefore, we can say that the genre of his work will not be
picked up at random Ц but it will rather depend on the communicative purport,
the task, which the author assigns to his work and tries to achieve in his
writing. We can also call it the Уpredominant aesthetic qualityФ [cf. 68,
p.18] as suggested by some scholars. In this sense the term would cover only
literary texts, because in some functional styles the aesthetic function is
not realised at all. Since we talk
of genres not only from the position of the theory of genres in literary
criticism but from the point of view of functional stylistics as well, it
would still be correct to speak of the communicative purport of the work as
of a less specific term. It is widely understood that in fiction
communication is mostly of aesthetic nature, i.e. creating meta-reality with
the help of words. Non-fiction genres, however, apart from occasionally
creating aesthetic scenes (in the stated meaning), can pass on authentic
information, recommend or prohibit something. The next
important genre-determining factor is the notional one. If the text is a
fairy-tale, for example, its characters are most likely to be unreal, imaginary
creatures taking part in unreal, wonderful events. If we take the genre of a
chronicle, it would give us an account of real events in chronological order
with dates and quotes, recounted by a historian not always unbiased. In
either case the content requires the use of the appropriate form, in which it
best achieves the desirable effect. The notional layer is to a considerable
extent predetermined by the authorТs individual perception of the world.
Authors with similar views of the world may later establish schools or give
rise to particular literary trends, cultivating particular genres or, on the
contrary, inventing new ones, elaborating artistic methods, devices, and
themes, which with time crystallise into characteristic traits of their
literary trend or school. Thus the
notional layer, the communicative purport and the authorТs perception of the
world constitute the subjective features that determine the genre of a
literary work, while the historical period, literary trend and literary
tradition can be referred to as objective ones. In the 19-20th
centuries the attitude to genres became rather complex. On the one hand,
traditional genre structures, elaborated over many centuries, were still
preserved. On the other hand, a writer felt free to use any form of personal
expression, free to ignore any strict rules or already established canons. There is a
point of view that the boundaries of literary genres are becoming Уblurred if
not absolutely destroyedФ. The authors tend to disregard strictly established
genre structure. There appear the so-called new Уsynthetic formsФ of novels,
poems, and plays which hardly fit any traditional genre [54, p.130, 131, 208
Ц 210]. It appears in
fact that genre typology varies from an epoch to an epoch, from one scholar
to another. However, it is possible to speak of a prevailing non-formalistic
approach towards the problem of genres. According to this point of view genre
is regarded not only as a relatively fixed set of certain artistic devices
but also as a dynamic, changing, individual combination and transformation of
those devices with frequent overlapping of the characteristics of one genre
with those of another genre. In this sense genre is not a rigid, forever
established form of expression but should rather be viewed as a flexible
material for individual creativity and freedom of realisation. Genres merge;
thus Уsynthetic formsФ appear. An author is allowed, so to say, to combine
genres, "to clothe" the content into any form, according to his
purport and view of the world. So far we have concentrated mostly on the
extralinguistic aspects of genres, such as the authorТs communicative
purport, historical epoch, literary trend and literary tradition, and
considered them from the point of view of literary criticism. But the notion
of genre is also an object linguistic studies and is considered within the
framework of stylistics. * According to V.Vinogradov and N.Kozhina, Уit would be right to
differentiate among at least three spheres of stylistic research, which have a
lot in common, very often overlapЕ but have, [in the final analysis] their
own tasks, criteria, and categories. These are: linguistic stylistics or
structural stylistics; speech stylistics, i.e. of various kinds and
acts of social usage of the language; and stylistics of artistic
literatureФ [24, c.5]. N.Kozhina defines stylistics of speech as the
primary object of functional stylistics, a Уscientific trend, which studies
the rules and ways linguistic means function in various kinds of speech, that
correspond to certain spheres of human activity and communication; it also
studies the speech structure of functional styles and the УnormsФ according
to which linguistic means are chosen and combined in themФ [35, p.67]. Style is Уone of the variants of the language, or language
subsystems, with its own vocabulary, phraseology, constructions and turns of
speech, which differs from other variants of the kind mainly in the
expressive and evaluative features of their elements, and usually associated
with particular spheres of language usageФ [16]. The choice of a certain
style is conditioned by the speaker's or writer's intention: whether he/she
just wants to provide his readers with information, to convince them to act
in a certain way or to impress them. Thus the choice of language (or, simply,
of words, to quote Professor O.S.Akhmanova) will be determined by Уthe
convention that a certain kind of language is appropriate for a certain useФ
[2, c.5]. V.Vinogradov works out a system of functional
styles on the basis of the functions the language fulfils. There are several
theories concerning the number of language functions. Roman Jakobson singles
out six of them: emotive, referential, poetic, phatic, metalingual and
conative [1, p.46]. Kozhina criticises Jakobson, and writes: Уif one tried to
classify functional styles according to those functions, they would not cover
all stylistic divergences that we find in speechФ [35, p.18]. According to the theory of academician V.Vinogradov, there are three
main language functions: communicative, intellective and aesthetic [24,
p.6-8]. A functional style therefore would mean a variety of language based
on the dominant functional linguistic peculiarities in a particular speech
environment or sphere of social activity. According to V.Vinogradov there are
six functional styles with respective language function fulfilled: 1.
the style of every-day communication 2. scientific
style (intellective function); 3.
the style of official-documentation, or official
style (intellective function); 4.
the style of every-day business communication 5. the style of
journalism (the function of impact) 6.
the style of fiction (the function of impact). The style of every-day communication is the one that is being used by
all of us and all the time in informal, every-day situations. It can be
characterised by a large freedom of choosing words and grammatical
structures: an utterance may consist just of a rough minimum of linguistic
elements, yet it should be sufficient for a successful communication between
people. Scientific style is typically used in corresponding spheres of human
activities: conferences, universities, scientific articles and debates, etc.
Official style is used in court, in the sphere of diplomatic and business
relations. Official letters, notes, agreements are composed in compliance
with the rules and standards of the official documentation style.
Journalistic style deals with topics related to politics, social life, and
public opinion. The style of fiction is the one of literary art, and writersТ
creative imagination. There is one УbutФ though, we can only speak about the
predominance of a certain style in this or that area of social life; all
categorical statements and divisions would have been too presumptuous. A linguistic function is realised through the choice of particular
words, word combinations and syntactic constructions. Thus for example,
scientific style would rest on terms, "water-tight" definitions and
logical argumentation. In such texts words are used mostly terminologically
and their semantic scope is, naturally, "narrowed". Official style
rests on the expression of the general concepts and ideas. Informal,
colloquial words and expressions, Уslang wordsФ are typical of the every-day
communication style. The above-said however does not mean that the functional styles are
always clearly and uncontroversially defined. A very important point to be
made here is that in every style there would always be words realising
everyone of the three functions, and the boundaries between the functional
styles is very often blurred. In connection with this research it is also
important to note that Уstyle-specificФ words (meaning those which play the
role of "decorators", providing a specific emotional-expressive
colouring) would constitute a relatively small percentage of a textТs
vocabulary. As for grammar and syntax Ц the use of certain forms and
constructions varies from one functional style to another. For instance, the
scientific style would often be characterised by direct word order; official
style tends to use more stock phrases and clichés. However, some
characteristic lexical-syntactic features of one stylistic register can be
perfectly used in another. Functional styles differ in degree of impact and emotionality.
Emotional expressiveness is usually unnatural for the scientific style, and
also unacceptable in the official style, but quite suitable in fiction and
the style of journalism. To sum up, each
functional style has a definite field of usage, special vocabulary and terms,
lexical arrangement, syntactic structure, the words of the general language
and the main function it fulfils. Following the
principles described above, all texts can be further classed according to a
particular genre. Linguist K. Reiss offers her theory of the text stylistics,
according to which Уthere are text-genres (Textsorte)Е i.e. a class of verbal
texts, with similar structure, variability range and usage in analogous contextsЕФ
[4, c.11]. Genre variation of texts reflects the social norm, which defines
the choice of linguistic means for the production of texts of this or that
genre. Norms and conventions of a genre are very important. Together with
stylistically УneutralФ words (i.e. those used in all genres) there are other
lexical units, the usage of which is limited by specific genre boundaries. In
speech these units are invariably associated with a particular genre or,
otherwise stated, become "genre-specific". For example, scientific
texts state universal truths. Therefore the forms of the Present Tense
prevail in such texts. Subjunctive Mood forms, infinitive + modal verb
constructions are used more rarely. The verb plays the primary role in the
time structure of the scientific text. In terms of lexis scientific texts may
employ a large amount of terms. All can be explained by the fact that such
kinds of texts are built with the help of the Уstandard linguistic meansФ,
conditioned by the logical and precise nature of these texts. In contrast
with the strictly and clearly regulated features of scientific texts, the
form of each text in fiction literature is unique, complex and multifarious.
It involves composition, syntax, morphological means [53, p. 24]. The genre of
a sonnet, for example, requires the observation of strict compositional
rules: fourteen lines with the last two rhymed. The differences
between norms and conventions of a genre become especially striking when they
cross the boundaries of languages and cultures
[70, p. 33]. УAlong with the genres shared by all writing cultures,
there are genres existing only in one culture (Japanese poetry genre khaiku,
for exampleФ [70, p. 35]. In terms of
linguistic variation genres can be УrigidФ (or УrestrictedФ) and УflexibleФ.
In genres with strict, rigid rules Уthe laws of genre may lead, for instance,
to a complete disappearance of the authorТs individual styleФ [53, p. 5]. The
so-called УrigidФ genres include: 1)
among scientific and official texts: scientific articles and theses,
reports, résumés, official letters, scientific experiments
studies/analysis/descriptions, patents, and so on.; 2)
among publicity texts and diplomatic documents: front-page article,
application, note, declaration, communiqué; 3)
in folklore: fairy-tale, ballad, УnonsenseФ poetry; 4)
in fiction: epigram, parody, УnonsenseФ poetry, ode, fable,
aphorisms, detective story, science fiction (or the insertions of the
technical sort of text into the core text), buffoon comedy (or insertions of
that kind into the core text of a drama work). To the
УflexibleФ genres, those that are relatively free from restricting rules,
belong: 1) in scientific
literature: fragments of discussion articles; 2) in publicity
texts: review, letter to the editor, essay, scientific-popular genres; 3) in folklore:
song; 4) in fiction: all
poetic, drama, and prose genres with the exception of those mentioned above. Since the texts
belonging to one and the same genre are likely to share common features,
scholars suggested the notion of the Уgenre-stylistic dominant featureФ
(already mentioned by K. Reiss), which is a dominant invariant characteristic
of a certain genre, realized in the styles of all other texts of that genre.
In other words, it is the УcoreФ, the principal features that determine a
particular genre.† This notion proved
to be extremely useful in the sphere of translation. A writer and a
translator M.Rylsky says: УЕif you translate a poet, whoТs main power is in
rhythm and sounds, it is this main feature you should take care of,
consciously sacrificing for its sake the logical train of his thoughts.
Contrariwise, while translating a rational, "logical" poet, it is
necessary to follow his logical line of expression, ignoring from time to
time the rhythmical soundness and melodic effectФ [53, p.13]. Thus, by
determining the genre-stylistic dominant feature in any original text we
would be able to define the stable/unstable, compulsory/non-compulsory
features for the translation of the text or for the analysis of a translated
text. It would also be possible to determine what changes in the target text
can be allowed from the point of view of the genre conformity and what
changes may lead to the destruction of the original genre and stylistic whole
of the source test. It appears
therefore, that a genre should be considered as a peculiar realisation of a
particular functional style and is a relatively stable type of a text,
characterised by a particular functional-linguistic orientation, sphere of
use, and the choice of compositional, lexical, syntactic, and decorative
elements. * A minute analysis of the lexical-syntactic
set of a particular piece of writing undoubtedly helps to penetrate the
secret world of thoughts and feelings. It is interesting to adduce in this
connection Vladimir Nabokov's vision of literature. According to his
doctrine, the only thing that matters in books is style. Morality and ideas
are irrelevant. "Aesthetic bliss" is the sole objective. You should
read not with your brain or heart but your backbone. A "telltale tingle
between the shoulder-blades" signals true literary quality[2]. This
is rather odd, of course, and yet contains a grain of wisdom, for
"aesthetic bliss" definitely rests on words and word-combinations.
In our specific case mystical world of religious and philosophical teachings,
medieval literary traditions, and fascinating imagery of the Middle East was
certainly expressed in the work of Kahlil Gibran through a careful selection
of lexical units and syntactic-stylistic constructions. Let us briefly stop
at this aspect of the problem and show how the application of
"ideas" in work of verbal art scorned by Nabokov, could become one
of the crucial factors in creating a specific "stylistic flavour". * In many of GibranТs biographies (like those by Jean Gibran and Kahlil
Gibran, Joseph Sheban), there was a mentioning of a connection between the
works of Gibran and the Oriental literary tradition including the Biblical
one. However none of them explored the subject exhaustively. In order to
prove that such a connection really existed we had to consult books devoted
to the Sufi mystical teaching and the works of the famous medieval Arab and
Persian poets. The books by Idris Shakh, Inayat Khan, Shaykh Fadhlalla Haeri
provided the general background of Sufism: its basic concepts and practices
as well as facts about its followers of the past and present times. Idris
Shakh, for example, expressed many of the Sufi concepts in allegories, the
fact that already allowed drawing parallels between GibranТs УThe ProphetФ
and Sufism. In his book УThe SufisФ he also provides insights into the
history of European culture, stating, for example, that many medieval
monastic orders and secret societies intrinsically originated from mystical
and philosophical movements of the Middle East. The parables and anecdotes he cites in his book contributed to a
better understanding of Sufism as well as of the literary tradition that existed
within Sufism. More parables and allegories could also be found in the books
УThe Mirror of the PerfectФ, a collection of stories about wandering Sufis,
in УThe Garden of EternityФ, a collection of Oriental aphorisms, and in УThe
River of SayingsФ, a collection of aphoristic sayings compiled by L.
Tiraspolsky. The majority of traditional allegories and images were found in
collections of translated poetry of the Arabic and Persian medieval as well
as contemporary Sufis such as Rumi, Hafez, Saady, Attar, Nurbakhsh, Maghrebi
and others. All literature
on Sufism mentioned above was rather of educational than of scientific
nature. In order to find the scientific grounds that would support this paper
we had to refer to the bulk of studies on the history and nature of Arabic
and Persian literature. The books by P. Grintser, articles by foreign
arabists D. Beaumont and M. Arkoun, as well as Encyclopaedia of Islam
provided us with the information on the development and interaction of the
European and Oriental literatures; the principles of the classical Arabic and
Persian poetics were explored in the works by D. Frolov, O. Frolova, A.
Kudelin, and R. Musulmankulov; the collections of the classical Oriental
Уwisdom literatureФ, and poetry including, in the first turn, the aphorisms,
parables, and poems of Rumi, Hafez, Saadi, Attar and others, provided
justification of the scholarsТ statements. In the course of this study it
became evident that since the Middle Ages the Middle Eastern literature has
closely interacted with the European literature leaving a strong impact on
the latter. Such was a conclusion, drawn in the article on Medieval Arabic
Narrative by D. Beaumont. The author briefly describes the state of the
fictional narrative in the Middle Ages, (or, to be more precise, states the
absence of literature of such kind), and traces back the appearance of the
first fiction work Ц a collection of stories, which later became known as
Arabian Nights or 1001 Nights. The work by P.Grintser provides a more detailed information regarding
the influence of the Middle Eastern literary tradition on the Western
literature. A range of books on the essential elements of Oriental poetics,
written by such scholars as D. Frolov, O. Frolova, A. Kudelin,
R.Musulmankulov tell us about traditional Oriental images and symbols,
themes, figures of speech, vocabulary, the principles of the classical Arabic
versification, etc. Their research provided confirmation of our initial
suggestion that, with the exception of the language, Gibran chose to write
УThe ProphetФ in accordance with the principles of traditional Oriental
poetics. In this connection it is important to mention the work by
V.Vinogradov УPushkinТs LanguageФ. One of the bookТs chapters reveals the
poetТs methods of creating УOrientalФ and, particularly, УbiblicalФ flavour
in a number of his poems. V.Vinogradov considers what linguistic
characteristics and stylistic forms contributed to the recreation of the
specific Уethnic and biblical spiritФ of PushkinТs poems [26, p.121]. Among
them are the archaic grammatical forms such as the incomplete forms of
adjectives: УнагФ, УмолодФ; particle УдаФ in imperative construction;
extended chain of syntagms invariably connected by conjunction УиФ; limited
number of subordinate clauses types with the conditional and time clauses
prevailing; the use of biblical and literary archaisms associated with the
elevated rhetorical style; traditional biblical or church phrasing Усень
успокоень¤Ф, Устезею правдыФ, Удрожащей твариФ; biblical and Oriental
symbols; etc. * The next category of books is dedicated primarily to the theory and
practice of translation, and offers views on the problem of preserving the
national, and historical colouring in a target text. Outstanding
scholars in the field of translation (A.Shveitser, V.Komissarov,
L.Barkhudarov, K.Chukovsky, A.Fyodorov, I.Levy, A.Popovich) are unanimous in
stating the necessity of preserving, and rendering the original stylistic,
and expressive flavour of the source text. If this most important condition
is ignored, the target text will inevitably lack the communicative effect,
and aesthetic value of the original. It is important however, that the
national (or historical, or cultural) flavour should not exceed the degree to
which it is present in the original. The works of the authors mentioned above
were no less important in terms of providing the descriptions of the basic
methods of translation, stating the criteria for evaluating and choosing
equivalents, showing ways of pragmatic adequacy assessment of the target
text, and offering possible solutions to a number of the most common
translation problems. Chapter 2.†
Terminological Background
The Linguistic
Encyclopaedic Dictionary gives the following definition of the notion of
stylisation: УStylisation (from the French word stilisation derived
from slyle) Ц is an intentional elaboration of an artistic narration
in accordance with the principles of the language material organisation and
the characteristic outward features of speech, typical of a particular 1)
social environment; 2) historical epoch; 3) literary trend; 4) genre; 5)
authorТs individual style Ц chosen as an object for imitationФ [43]. In other
words, it is a consistent and intentional reproduction of the principle
features of an artistic, social, or cultural material. In the dictionary by
O.S.Akhmanova we find the following definition of the term: Уan imitation of
a manner, or narrative style, etc. typical of some genre, social milieu, time
in history etc., usually aiming at creating the impression of authenticityФ
[16]. Stylisation is used for various artistic purposes: from recreating, for
example, the life of a society in ancient times or description of a certain
social layer, to writing parodies and satirical works. From the previous
chapter we learned that stylisation may be of different types, namely:
historical, genre and the "social-speech" stylisation, and the one
which emphasizes certain linguistic elements and devices, depending on the
narratorТs purport. For example, historical stylisation usually requires the
use of lexical-semantic and phraseological archaisms, outdated words; genre
stylisation concentrates on the principles of composition and speech
structure, basic methods of syntactic organisation of the imitated texts;
social stylisation involves phonetic, lexico-phraseological, and syntactic
peculiarities of the speech, characteristic of the imitated milieu. The Dictionary
of Literary Terms defines genre[3]
as a form in which the three major genera of literature, i.e. epic narrative,
lyrics and drama, find expression [52]. Epic genres are fairy-tale, novel,
short story; drama genres are tragedy, comedy, etc. As a notion of the
literary criticism, genre is always a unit of classification of literary
works and the indicator of their traditional characteristic features, that
favours aesthetic communication [see 68, p.13]. Within the framework of
literary criticism the notion of genre is narrowed down and embraces only the
bulk of literary texts. It is restricted to the area of fiction literature
leaving out other sorts of texts, which exist in other spheres of human
activities and are being created for other purposes. Going back to
what was said above about the relationship between functional styles and
literary genres we could reconsider the latter concept from purely
linguistic-stylistic point of view and suggest (unlike in many literary
critical works) a vision of this notion that puts a much heavier emphasis on
the linguistic side of it and on closer ties between the notional, decorative
and purely linguistic aspects of the text. We suggest this
considerably broadened definition of genre with the sole aim of disclosing
and afterwards proving practically the essence of genre stylisation, which
surely would be impossible without this new vision of the well-established
concept. Thus our own definition of the term genre runs as follows: a
relatively stable form of a literary writing characterised by a particular:
a) notional layer, b) composition; c) lexical-semantic structure, d) size, e)
use of literary devices and decorative elements, predetermined by the set of
notional parameters: 1) the work's communicative and aesthetic purport, 2) a
historical epoch, 3) a literary tradition, 4) a literary trend and 5) the
authorТs individual perception of the world. The former set of parameters
shall be provisionally called genre-essentials while the second one Ц genre-determiners[4]. Having thus
defined the notion of genre we do not find any great difficulty in defining
the notion of genre stylization. Our definition of the
term runs as follows: a deliberate reproduction in a new linguistic
environment (text or utterance) of one or several genre features of the
source text so as to create a stable emotional-expressive association between
the two. It appears therefore that genre stylisation implies taking
into consideration both the notional and the linguistic peculiarities of a
text that have become recurrent through a relatively close relationship
between genre-essentials and genre-determiners which are more or less
regularly reproduced within a particular historical, cultural and
socio-linguistic environment. A "styliser" may be content
with just one or two genre features of an imitated work or all of them
together. The only rule that has to be observed in this respect is that in
order to attain the desirable effect, the author is to use linguistic means
and devices to a degree sufficient for reproducing a desirable
"aesthetic aura", socio-cultural and linguostylistic shade, for
creating the aimed association, that does not necessarily become the central
element in a new work's aesthetic organisation, but may play a purely
decorative, emotional-expressive role, enhancing the poetic fulcrums of the
new literary work. If a "styliser" does not use enough
means, Уstylisation may be taken for the authorТs individual style, and
parody Ц for a badly written workФ [19, p.215]. Whether the author succeeds
in this task or not would of course be a matter of his good taste and
personal aesthetic feeling. It appears
therefore that genre stylisation involves the linguistic, temporal, social
and cultural aspects taken together. By applying the method of genre
stylisation we can reproduce a text of a particular genre through the use of
linguistic means (phonetic, lexical, syntactical, phraseological) that are
typical of that genre. Part II
Genre
Analysis of УThe ProphetФ
Chapter 1.†† Notional
Analysis
І 1 The Appearance of УThe ProphetФ In 1923 Kahlil Gibran had his greatest work published in The United
States Ц a set of poetic essays entitled УThe ProphetФ. Ever since that time
the poem remains GibranТs most acclaimed work. Kahlil Gibran was born in Lebanon in 1883. Among Arabic-speaking
peoples he is widely regarded as the greatest writer of his time. He was a
painter and a sculptor as well as a poet. He was often compared to Blake. For
the last twenty years of his life he made the United States his home where he
died in 1931. Gibran spoke several languages, among which were English and Arabic.
Gibran was always conscious of his origin. He was involved in the Arab
émigré organisation, which promoted the publication of Arab
writings to which he constantly contributed his own works, articles and
essays. Although his Arabic poems received little praise from the Arab press,
he never stopped writing in that language. Gibran viewed himself as a Уspokesman of both the Arab and English
worlds, a role whose difficulty he admittedФ. It is probably due to this
reason that we find in УThe ProphetФ Oriental philosophical ideas, many
characteristic features of the classical Arab poetry, and numerous
reminiscences of biblical ideas and style together
with the influence of both Oriental and Western philosophers, poets
and mystics. Gibran was encouraged to write in English by Mary Haskell, his
sponsor, advisor, and the closest friend. It was Mary, who advised him to
adopt English for УThe ProphetФ. Her face was an inspiration for the bookТs
illustrations. The idea of УThe ProphetФ evolved out of a single story
written by Gibran in Arabic. As he continued working on his Уisland manФ as
Gibran called the embryonic chapters of the future best-seller, he more and
more often referred to it as Уhis only real workФ, УHis bookФ. In his letters
to Mary he mapped out the main idea and the form of the book: УIt is the
prophetic form. That is the really great formЕI have taken Еaspects of life,
and reduced each to its simple realityЕ Everything will be short. Your know I
believe the realest books are short. How short Job is!Ф [5, p. 312]. Mary Haskell defined his style as Уa sort of universal English Ц the
simplest structure, Сpure lineТ English, that he uses, in choosing the Bible
styleФ. Gibran explained his attraction to that style: УThe Bible is Syriac
literature in English words. /Е/ There is nothing in any other tongue to
correspond to the English Bible. And the Chaldo-Syriac is the most beautiful
language that man has made Ц though it is no longer usedФ [5, p. 313]. As for the poetic nature of his book, the author said himself: УI am
not trying to write poetryЕ I am trying to express thoughts Ц but I want the
rhythm and the words right so that they shanТt be noticed, but shall just
sink in, like water into cloth Ц and the thought be the thing that registersФ
[5, p. 315]. The only disagreement that Mary Haskell and Gibran had about the work
concerned its title. Initially it was УThe CommonwealthФ, then УThe CouncilsФ
and finally it was Gibran who came up with the final version of УThe
ProphetФ. Mary never accepted that title and continued to call the book УThe
CouncilsФ. Eleven years have passed since the book was conceived in 1912 up to
the date it was published in 1923. Since then УThe ProphetФ has been
translated into more than twenty languages all over the world. І 2 Historical
Background The 20th
century was the time of the greatest literary utopias. It was also the time
of experiments with verbal and visual arts. The science and technological
progress advanced so rapidly that some began to worry about the forthcoming
destiny of mankind. There was a growing uneasiness in the atmosphere, a
premonition of the great disaster coming very near. That disaster finally
struck the world in 1914 and left the European cultural heritage in ruin and
ashes. World War I has instantly erased all social values. Decadence in all
forms of art, the primary symptom of the emerging crisis, alongside with
emotional emptiness, uselessness, and the Уdeath of all godsФ made nihilism
the prevailing attitude in all forms of artistic expression. Thus modernism
appeared as a reaction to the present state of things. This new literary
trend included various trends, such as surrealism, avant-garde and many
others. No matter to what extent each trend differed from others, their
common point was the idea of absurdity of the world and decay of all human
values. Such was the
atmosphere at the time, when Gibran began to tell one of his friends of an
Arabic work he has been working on which he called Уmy island manФ Ц the
seeds of his most famous book УThe ProphetФ. However it was only several
years later, in October 1923, that the book came out of print with a very
modest success in the US. In time, when
morality was shattered and human values lost their weight, Gibran takes upon
himself the task of re-establishing those values and bringing this world and
a personТs disoriented self to harmony and peace. Through the preaching of
love his Prophet tells people of the things that they have known but forgotten
and which Уeven now are moving within their soulsФ. Even as Messiah had come
to save all the people at their worst hour, so has come GibranТs Prophet. The choice of
the genre of a sermon for the book is not surprising if we take into account
the historical epoch, which constitutes one of the factors that predetermine
the genre of a literary work. Gibran does not seek the salvation in new
modernistic trends of verbal art, but traditionally turns to God, as to the
only source of peace and hope for the people. І 3 Literary Trend In the course of his life Gibran was variously affected by multiple
ideas but neither of them, it seems, had any positive influence on him. It is
important to emphasise that the aspects he had borrowed from the world literature
affected mostly his style, composition or language, but not ideas. They have
always been his own and presented a curious blend of Christianity and Sufism.
Gibran admitted himself that in terms of form and style УThe ProphetФ Уwas
greatly influenced by УThus Spake ZarathustraФ, written by the German
philosopher Friedrich NietzscheФ [I-net link 8]. In this respect it is
interesting to cite here a piece of an article by Ellie Jabbor, who finds
similarities between Gibran's "The Prophet" and NietzscheТs
Zarathustra and also some of the motives discoverable in Walt WhitmanТs
poetry: УAlmustafa, Ц writes Ellie Jabbor Ц the main character in Gibran's
book, is comparable to Zarathustra, the main character in Nietzsche's book.
Zarathustra, who walks as a stranger among men, gives now and then of his
wisdom before returning to the Happy Isles. Almustafa, in contrast, is also a
stranger among men, but gives his wisdom in a series of twenty-six sermons. In the
beginning of the third part Zarathustra climbs a high mountain and says, УAh,
this sombre sea...to you I must now go downФ. Almustafa, however, climbs a
hill and says, УAnd you, vast seaЕshall I come to you, a boundless drop to a
boundless oceanФ. Both characters ascended some type of protrusion of the earth,
and address the sea below, before departing from their exile. Both characters also address their friends before their departure.
Zarathustra, bidding his disciples farewell says, УNow I do bid you lose me
and find yourselves; and only when you have all denied me, will I return unto
youФ. Almustafa addresses his friends by saying to them: УBut should my voice
fade in your ears, and my love vanish in your memory, then I will come
againФ. In their farewell addresses, Zarathustra and Almustafa promise to
return to their place of exile and to their friends. Though there are heavy
similarities between the style and form of "The Prophet" and
"Thus Spake Zarathustra", the books are different in their
substance and imaginationФ [I-net link 8]. In terms of content Gibran certainly develops
the mystical literary trend to which also belongs the famous English poet
William Blake. George Nicolas El-Hage wrote in his article УKahlil Gibran and
William Blake: Poets of Prophetic VisionФ: Уthe two poets shared a basic
prophetic vision and apocalyptic view of the universeФ. For both the Bible
Уwas an inexhaustible source of inspirationФ, both Уwere convinced that they
were discovering a new truth about the human soul and that they were building
a УGolgonoozaФ and an УOrphaleseФ respectivelyФ [I-net link 4]. Being for some time a member of the Maronite
sect, formed during the schism in the Byzantine church in the 5th
century AD and made up of a group of Syrian Christians, Gibran sought to
unite various religious sects, in a bid to abolish the religious snobbery,
persecution and atrocities witnessed at his time [I-net link 2]. However, he
breaks up with the sect some time later. This biographic fact illustrates the
point that Gibran had Уhis own religion of the heartФ, which he considered to
be the Уdoor to ParadiseФ. We believe that in his writings Gibran was trying
to unveil this mystical, unknown side of human existence. Ellie Jabbour
supports the idea that Gibran continued the mystical literary trend by
saying: УGibran rejected the atheistic philosophies of Nietzsche and accepted
the reality of a benevolent and harmonious universe, as did Whitman.
"Mysticism is one of the main, pervasive elements in "The
Prophet" and in "Song of Myself". УBoth works Ц she
continues Ц are about their author, but do not follow a strict
autobiographical pattern. Gibran and Whitman both believe that their souls
tend to be fused with other selves. Their lives become a part of the lives of
their friends. The works are more of a journal of a soul, rather than the way
of all souls. "The Prophet" and "Song of Myself" can be
described as dramas, with the poet playing the leading role. Almustafa, the
prophet searching for answers, is like WhitmanТs bard who, "Еloafs,
invites his soul, and chants, СA call in the midst of the crowdТ with a
Сvoice, orotund sweeping and finalТ". In both works, the poet enters a
mystical state. He then travels through different stages, until he comes out
of that state. In these stages, the poet has mystical experiences. These
experiences are the base of the "sermons" given by the poetsФ
[I-net link 8]. We are going
neither to agree with what has been said about the ideological influences on
GibranТs mind, nor to reject it. What really matters to us, is that our
suggestion to regard Gibran as a mystical writer following a prophetic
tradition finds confirmation in other sources. The genre of a sermon, which
we regard as the basic genre of the bookТs Уsynthetic formФ, has also been
mentioned by Jabbor. We may conclude
at this point that Gibran followed the mystical literary trend, introducing
the themes and plot elements used by other authors. To put it metaphorically,
Gibran drew threads from the other peopleТs beliefs and wove a cloth of his
own philosophy. І 4 Literary Tradition A literary work
of art distinguishes itself from all other texts by the fact that it gives
freedom to the readerТs imagination, allowing him/her to fancy and admire
every remarkable idea or image the author offers to them. But in some cases
the images are not new, the words are quite simple and ordinary, yet we canТt
help admiring what we read. The imagery of
a literary work is usually a unique product of the authorТs individual
creativity within the confines of that work. But authors may not necessarily
create everything by themselves. To achieve the ultimate aesthetic goal, they
are free to use allusions, borrow and interpret images that have been created
a long time ago. In the following paragraph the core allegories and images of
the Oriental Sufi teaching are linked to the images of GibranТs book, thus
confirming the idea of a very strong influence of Sufism as well as ancient
Oriental poetic tradition on the content, composition, and imagery of УThe
ProphetФ. Most literary critics
emphasize the importance of connection of literary genre with literary
tradition [cf. 19, p.183]. Genres reflect a particular tradition and
preserve, more or less, the characteristics, established and maintained by
this tradition over centuries. A literary tradition surely depends not only
on time but on the culture as well. In this respect it is interesting to
trace the influence of the Oriental, and particularly Arabic literary
tradition on GibranТs writing, a tradition that was not the least to determine
genre peculiarities of УThe ProphetФ. The early
development of Arabic literature was accompanied by the development of Islam.
There existed a rich poetic tradition in pre-Islamic Arabia. But everything
this tradition produced had been preserved in oral form up to the late eighth
and early ninth centuries, with one exception, perhaps: the Qur'an is the
only text which scholars know to have existed in some written form in the
century after the death of Muhammad (peace be upon him) in 632 AD. Fictional
narrative or fictional genres did not exist in Arabic and Syrian literatures
in the Middle Ages. To cite Daniel Beaumont, an arabist and a literature
researcher, Arabic literature was a Уliterature of hard factФ. УThat which
never happened was simply a lieФ [cf. I-net link 7]. M.Arkoun writes: УThe
Qur'an contributed to this weakening of artistic imagination with its attacks
against Сthe poets whom the erring follow, who wander in every valley and who
say what they do not doФ. This, perhaps, is one of the reasons why
theological and philosophical traditions were so strong in Arabic literature.
It basically rested upon them. The outcome of the theological and
philosophical thought was a vast body of such writings, a few centuries later
zealously collected and translated by many outstanding figures of the
Renaissance. The next novelty that Europe borrows from the East is the principle
of the Уframe compositionФ, that is when one or several people tell the
stories they have either heard of or witnessed themselves. The УBook of
SyndbadФ and similar collections (1001 Nights, for example) made European
literatures follow this principle where the content was variously
interspersed with tales in conformity with the local narrative tradition and
literary heritage [cf. 27, p.17]. Gibran follows the principle of the Уframe
compositionФ which is very similar to the composition of NietzscheТs УThus
Spake ZarathustraФ. Speaking of the
religious or theological character of the Middle Eastern literature, we can
hardly ignore the fact that an enormous part of it reflected the ideas of
various mystical teachings, particularly of Sufism. Religious
nature of many Middle Eastern writings conditioned the development of
didactic literature (very similar to the Greek one), such as instructions to
the young, a teacherТs conversations with his disciples and the like. Didactic treatises and Уwisdom literatureФ genre stand very close to
each other, the latter being very traditional and widely spread in the East.
Its heyday falls on the Middle Ages and can be traced back as far as the 8th
Ц 13th centuries AD. To this genre we can refer various writings
in Farsi and Arabic by Oriental philosophers and poets, thinkers and
religious figures such as: Ibn Sinna (or Avicenna) (circa 980 Ц 1037),
Abu-al-Faradge (1226 Ц 1286), Attar (circa 1119), Jami (1414 Ц 1492), Nizami
(circa 1141 Ц 1209), Omar Khayam (circa. 1048 Ц 1122), Al-Ghazali (1058 Ц
1111), Rudaki (circa. 860 Ц 941), Rumi (1207 Ц 1273), Saadi (1203/1210 Ц
1292), Ferdowsi (940 Ц 1020), Hafez (circa. 1325 Ц 1389) and many others. УWisdom literatureФ genre presupposes that some moral or a wise
statement would be expressed either in the form of a parable, allegorical
poem, aphorism, short story, saying, didactic poem or a treatise. УWisdom literatureФ
genre Уshares with the reader the knowledge gained over a long period of time
through learning and experienceФ [53, p.6]. Having the epic character,
Уwisdom literatureФ genre carries out the didactic function. The Arab love lyrics also reflected the ideas of Sufism, and had a
deep influence on troubadours of Spain and Province and on the poets of the
Уdolce stylle nuovaФ in Italy as well. The fact that Arabic motives and the
general tone of Arab lyrics are very close to the themes and tone of the
European courteous poetry, has generated a hypothesis according which the
latter had originated directly from the former [cf. 27, p.18]. The close
relation of the troubadoursТ and minnesingersТ verses not only to the Arabic
but also to the Persian Sufi lyrics is a clear evidence of their close
interaction [cf. 27, c.18; cf. 34, p.363]. Literary research shows that Oriental stylistics, images and the
basic principles of the Oriental poetics entered Western literature closer
towards the beginning of the 19th century [27, p. 22], while the
ideas of the East, be it science or philosophy, theological thoughts or
poetry, had penetrated the Western culture long before that date. Speaking of Уwisdom literatureФ, we mentioned
that it typically expresses certain ideas in forms of allegories and
metaphors. In the English literature the tradition of encoding the meaning in
the form of an allegory goes back to Alexander Pope, Geoffrey Chaucer, John
Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, William Blake and others Ц a relatively recent tradition
if compared to the Oriental literature. The poets of the Middle East concentrated
almost entirely on religious and philosophical subjects. People of European
mentality often misinterpreted generalisations presented in the form of
poetic images in the works of Oriental writers, being absolutely unaware of
the fact that beneath that which is seemingly obvious lied something that for
some purpose was concealed by the author. As we look
closer at Kahlil Gibran's work, we realise that the origin of his images and
the interpretation of "The Prophet" do not fit into the framework
of just one literary tradition. However, while we read his poetry we feel
that there is something unusual about it; there is more beneath it than a
mere desire to be original and rhetorical.Traditionally an allegorical
writing would have a great potential for communicating multiple shades of
meaning and emotional-expressive connotations. Gibran's ideas and the manner
of his writing are not at all transparent for the reader. The poet has
rediscovered new possibilities for the realisation of his literary talent in
traditional Oriental metaphorisation. Rumi, Hafez and Saadi, the great
Oriental poets and followers of Sufism, used well-established images and
traditional Sufi metaphors and comparisons. Gibran's images are very much the
same. Beneath the veil of the seemingly obvious semantic concepts lies a
mysterious tradition of many centuries old.Sufism is not just a
religious doctrine. It is rather a way of thinking, a way of living and a
mystical teaching. It first appeared on the territory of the present day
Islamic countries (Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia). Sufism's basic intention is to
discover the Truth through Love and devotion. The key Arabic metaphor of
Sufism is the Path (Tariqat in Arabic) Ц Spiritual Path to God.
Since only one who is perfect is capable of seeing the Truth, Sufis believe
the only way to become perfect is to purify oneself under the training of a
perfect Sufi Master. Spiritual purification means the ability to get rid of
the human sinful "self", become "empty" and to get filled
with Love. Thus the Sufi's ultimate goal is "to dissolve"
completely in God. Things
that are common for all the world's major religions are found in the Sufi
teaching. A parable from the book of an outstanding Persian Sufi poet Rumi
may vividly illustrate the previous statement: a Persian, a Turk, an Arab and
a Greek wanted to buy grapes. But as they called it differently in their
native tongues, they could not come to an agreement
what to buy. Religions may have different names, but their essence remains
the same. Pir-O-Murshid Inayat Khan says: УThe
Sufi message does not call a person away From a
belief or church, it calls one to live itФ Another Sufi
master Ibn Arabi writes:УMy
heart has become capable of [taking] every form:It is a pasture for
gazelles,And a monastery for Christian monks,And a temple for idols, And the
pilgrimТs KaТba, And the tablets of the Torah, And the Book of the QuТran.I
follow the religion of Love:Whatever way LoveТs camel takes,That is my
religion and my faithФ.УPoets were the main disseminators of the Sufi
thought, and the respect they enjoyed was equal to the one deserved by the
Уlearned menФ of Ireland in the early Middle Ages. They employed a similar secret
language of metaphors and verbal code. The Persian poet Nizami wrote: УThe
key to the treasury is in the mouth of a poetФ. The secret language stood on
guard of the Sufi way of thinking, shared only by those who understood it,
and also secure from accusations of heresy or disobedience to the city
authoritiesФ [34, p.9].A Sufi poet pursues two goals. One Ц is to encode his
poetic lines in such a way that the surface images would conceal reliably the
mystic knowledge from the uninitiated Ц in this case his verses resemble
fables and his witty morals are easily understood.The poetТs second goal is
to provide an integral allegoric vision of the Truth, which allows an
in-depth reading. Those who wish to see will be able to see the deeper sense,
those who look for entertainment, and simple truths, and advice for everyday
life will too find what they want. In this connection it is interesting to
remember a biblical prophet Isaiah who saw God with his "unclean
eyes" and was purged by a Seraphim and was ordered by God to speak in
parables, so that those who want to see the Almighty would not do it easily,
but only through an intense intellectual effort and empathy with the author
while interpreting the parables. Echoing him, Jesus said at the end of his
parable of a sower: "Who hath ears to hear, let him hear" (Mt
13:9). A careful comparison of Gibran's "The
Prophet" with the core Sufi imagery found in the works of outstanding
Masters of the Path reveals a very close association between them. "The
Prophet" starts with the words: "Al-Mustafa... had waited twelve
years in the city of Orphalese for his ship that was to return and bear him
back to the isle of his birth...". The plot of the
"Prophet" is based on the Sufi metaphor of the ship [cf.
34,† p.26], that carries people across
the sea from one island (their temporary shelter), to their homeland.
Experienced sailors and captains, who had once visited the homeland, returned
to guide the others. They also take the burden of building ships and
instructing the passengers before the voyage. The homeland embodies the
ultimate goal of Sufism, the spiritual and physical unity with the Creator.
The sailors and shipbuilders, the mediators between the secret Truth and this
world, stand for Sufi teachers or prophets. The art of shipbuilding is the
method or the way to reach the goal. УYour journey ends in your
homeland.Remember, that you travel from the seeming worldto the real one,ФЦ writes a Sufi
[56].GibranТs prophet is about to fulfil the same goal. He is ready to start
a sea-journey together with the Уmen of his own landФ. In this sense his
allegory undoubtedly lies within the Sufi poetic tradition.Let us now take
another example from his book: "When
you work you are a flute through whose heart the whispering of the hours
turns to music. Which of you would be a reed, dumb and silent, when all else
sings together in unison?"The Persian poet Rumi wrote in the
13th century:We are as
the flute, and the music in us is from thee;we are as the mountain and the
echo in us is from thee.The metaphor of a flute explains why the
Sufi rejects his "ego". He needs to free himself from the burden of
individual "self" in order to get filled with Love for the divine.
The Prophet compares himself with a "flute through which passes the
breath of the Creator" or with a "harp, touched by the hand of the
Mighty". The Sufi rejects his negative УselfФ, his
УegoФ, and through this self-denial comes to the realisation of his divine
nature and purifies his heart to such an extent that through his Love becomes
completely dissolved in God [cf. 55]. Saadi said: УDetach yourself from all
for the Love of One; maintain a hundred things for the sake of OneФ. УSufi is
not present in himself, but he is present in GodФ, said Hudgrivi. The Sufi
can thus be compared to a reed that is hollow inside Ц through itТs Уheart
the whispering of the hours turns to musicФ. Kahlil Gibran, Rumi Ц almost all
Sufi poets used the image of a flute in their philosophical verses [see 60]: Hearken to the reed-flute, how it complains, Lamenting its banishment from its home: "Ever since they tore me from my osier bed, My plaintive notes have moved men and women to tears. I burst my breast, striving to give vent to sighs, And to express the pangs of my
yearning for my
home. 'Tis the fire of love that
inspires the flute,
'Tis the ferment of love that possesses the wine. The flute is the confidant of all unhappy lovers; The flute tells the tale of love's bloodstained
path, Did my Beloved only touch me with his lips, I too, like the flute, would burst out in melody. J.Rumi УMasnaviФ Rumi writes that the flute cries for the reed
for it was cut from it and turned into an instrument [50]. Saadi uses a
similar image of a wax candle which cries for honey [45]. This is an allegory
of a Sufi longing for the reunion with God. The allegorical images of Beloved, and
Lover are also taken from the Sufi tradition. Previously we have
mentioned that the Arab love lyrics produced a considerable effect on the
European love poetry in the 9th Ц 13th centuries [34,
p.363]. But as different from European poets Arab writers filled their love
poems with mystical implications. The beautiful Leila was not just a woman,
who made her lover complain of her cruelty and suffer from his love anguish.
Leila is the embodiment of God and a poetТs love for her Ц his love and
longing for God. The allegorical images of the Beloved (either a woman or a
man) or Lovers symbolise God and a Sufi seeking reunion with the Almighty. In
this respect, the Sufi poetic tradition coincides with the biblical one (the
most vivid example of which is the УCanticlesФ or the Song of Solomon). The
Marriage of the two becomes the symbol of the Ultimate Union with the
Creator. Here is what writes Mevlana Jalaluddin Rumi: May these vows and this
marriage be blessed. May it be sweet milk, This marriage, like wine and halvaЕ (translated from Persian by Kulliyat-i-Shams) If your beloved had the life
of a fire step in now and burn alongЕ (translated from Persian by Nader Khalili) Detach yourself
from all for the love of one; Maintain a hundred things
for the sake of One. (Saadi) If you are not with your
Beloved, why arenТt you seeking? And if you are together,
then where is your joy? Compare these images with GibranТs lines: УAnd
what is to work with love? It is to weave the cloth with the threads drawn
from your heart, even as if your beloved were to wear that cloth. It is to
build a house with affection, even as if your beloved were to dwell in that
house. It is to sow seed with tenderness and reap the harvest with joy, even
as if your beloved were to eat the fruitФ (On Work). The metaphor of
wine or the juice of grapes, squeezed by the winepress, stands for the
essence of the Sufi teaching Ц for the Truth and Love. The juice of the
grapes is the "wine" of Sufism [cf. 34, p.49]:"I am too a
vineyard, and my fruit shall be gathered for the winepress. And like new wine
I shall be kept in eternal vessels," Ц† says the Prophet putting in this beautiful image the idea of a
Sufi's life. Wine is the Truth, the sacred sense of the Sufi teaching, pure
Love and devotion for God. Sufi drinks wine, drinks of the eternal Truth and
becomes "drunk" with Love. The same motives can be found in the
Sufi poetry:The Lovers,we
drink wine night and day.*They will drink until they canTear away the veils
of intellect andMelt away the layers of shame and modesty.When in Love,Body,
mind, heart and soul donТt even exist. Become this,Fall in Love, And you will
not be separated again.J.
Rumi [39] It is also worth mentioning that the QuТran
prohibits consumption of wine, but in the Sufi poetry a metaphoric
"intoxication" with the wine of Love acquires an allegoric meaning
associative with an ecstatic experience of faith through Love to God. Metaphors of
the Ocean and the Sea are also extremely important for the Sufi
poems. They reflect the ancient tradition of many world cultures, for they
thought it to be the source of every form of life.Gibran's Prophet says: "The sea that calls all things unto her calls me, and I must embark...
And you, vast sea, sleeping mother, who are alone peace and freedom to the
river and the stream ... and then I shall come to you, a boundless drop to a
boundless ocean". Comparing it with the following lines, we
clearly see a connection between the two quotations.Love rests on no foundation.It is an
endless ocean,With no beginning or end...All souls have drowned in it,And now
dwell there...J.Rumi
[I-net link 5]In Sufism the Ocean is associated with the ultimate goal of teaching,
the moment of reunion with the Creator: a Sufi disappears in the infinite. The traces of the feet lead to the
Ocean's coast.Then there are no more traces.J.Rumi [int. link 5] УIf Ocean is the whole, then part is a drop.
Sufi cannot witness the Ocean through the dropТs eye. The drop has to come to
the Ocean and behold the Ocean through the OceanТs eyeФ [cf. I-net link 6]. A similar interpretation of a Sufi water
image runs as follows: believing in God may be compared to a stream that
flows towards the sea (the ultimate goal of Sufism), accelerating its speed,
increasing its power, and growing in width. Brooks and streams join the main
flowing mass of water. At the end nothing can stop the rushing flow in its
way towards the Ocean, reunion with God, Love, and Truth [cf. 60]. The water theme receives further development
in the following lines: Everything other than love
for the most beautiful God is agony of the spirit, though it be sugar-eating.
What is agony of the spirit? To advance toward death without seizing hold of
the Water of Life. J. Rumi УMasnaviФ The spiritual tradition resembles deep waters
that hide themselves beneath the earth, and wash only those roots that are
long enough to reach them [cf. 60]. Although one cannot drink the whole ocean, One should drink up to his capacity. * Seek, no matter what your situation may be. Oh, you, who is longing, seek for the water. Time will come at last, when you will find the spring. J. Rumi Another crucial allegory in GibranТs work is
the allegory of a dream or a sleep that possess all humans,
those who do not strive for their inner spiritual Perfection and
Enlightenment. They are Уblind to see the highest Truth, whereas the Sufis
are blind to ordinary things and daily concerns of the peopleФ [cf. 34,
p.13]. The Sufi УsleepsФ when others struggle for better life in the material
world and he is УawakeФ when others sleep. In other words, he is Уspiritually
alertФ. With this understanding in mind, GibranТs words become clearer as the
seeress Almitra addresses the prophet: УIn
your aloneness you have watched with our days, and in your wakefulness you
have listened to the weeping and the laughter of our sleep.Ф The meaning of other places in the book
becomes more evident as well: УAnd his soul
cried out to them, and he said: Sons of my ancient mother, you riders of the
tides,/How often have you sailed in my dreams. /And now you come in my
awakening, which is my deeper dreamФ (The Coming of the Ship) УMuch
of you is still man, and much in you is not yet man, But
a shapeless pigmy that walks asleep in the mist searching for his own
awakeningФ (On Crime and Punishment) УNo
man can reveal to you aught but that which already lies half-asleep in the
dawning of your knowledgeФ (On Teaching) Thus dreaming and sleeping are opposed to
awakening and wakefulness. The idea of silence is another
principal notion of the Sufi teaching (also shared by the powerful monastic
orders in medieval times). Silence accumulates the human bodyТs resources,
enhances meditation abilities, and prevents people from wasting words for
silly purposes, helps to avoid contradictions and useless disputes. УSilence
gives relaxation to mind and body; it puts you at ease and heals you. The
power of silence is enormous, and not only in terms of generating and saving
energy and vitality: man profits from keeping silenceФ [66, p.271]. Rumi
said: УBe
silent, for itТs question and answer that plague insightФ. УThere are many
ways to reach inspiration, but silence is the best among them.Ф [66,
p.273] The proof of those statements can be found in
the examples of the old Persian poetry: ЕThou and I, with no УThouФ or УIФ, shall become one through our
tasting; Happy, safe from idle talking, Thou and IЕ J. Rumi or: Еah, I better keep silence, I know, this endless love Will surely arrive for you, and you, and you J. Rumi Gibran echoes this idea by saying: УOnly
when you drink from the river of silence shall you indeed singФ (On Death). The allegory of Veils and Covers is the last to be
mentioned here.† These images
stand for something in the way between God and man; something that prevents
man from approaching God. Gibran echoes this idea: УBut speechless was our love, and with veils has it
been veiledФ (The Coming of the Ship). Your Essence is constantly both hidden and apparent
through me, For I am your veil, and I am your cloak as wellЕ Maghrebi
Gibran uses a
similar image of the city surrounded by walls. Thus he describes obstacles on
the way to the Truth: Уa little longer shall your city walls separate you
from your fieldsФ. The Prophet Уclimbed the hill without the city
walls, and beheld his shipФ. A similar image can also be found in RumiТs
famous poem УMasnaviФ. All these images have entered the Sufi poetic
tradition a long time ago. They became symbolic and easily recognisable.
Found in GibranТs work, they indicate that the work heavily relies on the
Sufi tradition. His key images of a ship, sea voyage, Beloved, flute
and wine coincide with the basic Sufi images and reflect the Sufi
vision of the world. Some images in the Sufi tradition are
identical, for example, to the biblical ones. Gibran, for instance, uses the
images of the vineyard УI too am a vineyard, and my fruit shall be
gathered for the winepressФ compare with the lines from the book of the
prophet Isaiah (Is 5:1 Ц 5:7) УЕFor the vineyard of the Lord of hosts is the
house of Israel, and the men of Judah his pleasant plantЕФ; Beloved: УAnd
what is it to work with love?ЕIt is to sow seeds with tenderness and reap the
harvest with joy, even as if your beloved were to eat the fruitФ, bread
УAnd then he [Love] assigns you to his sacred fire, that you may
become sacred bread for GodТs sacred feastФ, root УAnd if any
of you would punish in the name of righteousness and lay the axe unto the
evil tree, let him see to its roots; And verily he will find the roots of the
good and the bad, the fruitful and the fruitless, all entwined together in
the silent heart of the earthФ compare with УAnd now also the axe is
laid unto the root of the trees: therefore every tree which bringeth not
forth good fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fireФ (Mt 3:10), and sower:
УIf this is my day of harvest, in what field have I sowed the seeds, and
in what unremembered seasons?Ф compare with the biblical parable of a
sower: УЕBehold, a sower went forth to sowФ (Mt 13:3). The image of
the north wind is also characteristic of the Oriental poetic
tradition. In УThe ProphetФ: УThough his voice may shatter your dreams as
the north wind lays waste the gardenФ; УIt was the north wind who has woven
the clothes we wearФ. In the Bible: УAwake, O north wind; and come,
thou south; blow upon my garden, that the spices thereof may flow out. Let my
beloved come into the garden and eat his pleasant fruitФ (Song 4:16).† * Another category of images to be mentioned
are the authorТs own creations Ц individual images and metaphors. Some of
them are based on analogy with traditional Sufi poetry. The prophet says: УAm I a harp that the hand of the mighty may
touch meЕФ, Уa lanternФ lit by the hand of the Creator . Parallels can be drawn with the image of a У fluteФ pierced by
the УbreathФ of the Creator. The image of a well Уfrom
whichЕlaughter risesФ and Уwhich was oftentimes filled withЕtearsФ
is created by analogy with the metaphor of a vessel, house, or temple
as a human body, a man: УFor
his [friendТs] soul will keep the truth of your heart as the taste of the
wine is remembered. When the colour is forgotten and the vessel is no moreФ (On Friendship) Other
metaphors based on Oriental tradition include metaphors of the fountain and
the fruit tree (a spiritual teacher fills the cups of the thirsty and
gives of his fruits to the hungry), of an Archer (УThe archer sees
the mark upon the path of the infinite, and He bends you with his might that
His arrows may go swift and farФ), of the scales Ц human soul
empty for God to fill it (УVerily you are suspended like scales between
your sorrow and your joy. Only when you are empty Ц are you standstill and
balancedФ), of the Potter (Уthe cupЕhas been fashioned of the
clay which the Potter has moistened with His own sacred tearsФ). The
last category of images worth mentioning in connection with the subject of
this paper includes universal images and personifications, such as the symbol
of the rising phoenix, borrowed from the Egyptian mythology: Уand
let it [soul] direct your passion with reason, that your passion may love
through its own daily resurrection, and like the phoenix rise above its own
ashesФ (On Reason and Passion), or a Buddhist symbol of lotus Уthe
soul unfolds itself, like a lotus of countless petalsФ (On Self-knowledge). This mingling of ideas and symbols accounts for
GibranТs wish Уto balance the East and the West influencesФ. He admitted: УI
know now that I am part of the whole Ц a fragment of a jarЕNow IТve found out
where I fit, and in a way I am a jar Ц and the jar is IФ. І 5
Communicative Purport As we have
already mentioned in Part I, GibranТs attempt to re-establish human values
was partly a reaction to the deep spiritual crisis which he, being an artist
and a sensitive man, must have felt very acutely even in the economically
successful America. People were Уsearching for reassurance and answers to the
perplexing questions about lifeФ, writes Donald Adams, Ц Уthat quest had been
so widespread and so intense that scores of inferior books, offering pat and
easy answers almost turned the word УinspirationalФ into a dirty one. But we
can easily describe УThe ProphetФ by that adjective, and not in derogatory
sense, for it contains that scarce value, wisdomФ [I-net link 2]. For the Prophet
people Уlaugh in sleepФ and Уstand with their backs to the sunФ.
His aim is to disclose their souls to themselves, to prompt them to
УawakeningФ, and Уto urge them to seekФ. To seek God through Love and
Devotion as a wax candle craves for his honey and a flute cries for the reed. In the language
of almost УBiblical majestyФ the prophet speaks to the troubled and uncertain
men and women about fundamental things Ц those, which are a part of any human
life: love, giving, food, work, sorrow, beauty, religion and so on. Like most
wisdom, most of what he has to tell them is ancient. УThere are echoes of
Jesus here, as there must be in any ethical writing that came after Him, and
echoes of the Old Testament, but on it all there is also the imprint of a
rich and unusual personalityФ [I-net link 2]. Gibran offers no quick recipes to happiness, no Уeasily mastered
formulae for successful livingФ [I-net link 2].† Essentially, he bids the reader look closely into his/her own
heart and mind, for he knows what teaching is: УNo man can reveal to you
aught but that which already lies half asleep in the dawning of your
knowledge. The teacher who walks in
the shadow of the temple, among his followers, gives not of his wisdom but
rather of his faith and lovingness. If he is indeed wise he does not bid you enter the house
of his wisdom, but rather leads you to the threshold of your own mind. For the vision of one man
lends not its wings to another man. And even as
each one of you stands alone in God's knowledge, so must each one of you be alone
in his knowledge of God and in his understanding of the earth". At a time when too many
people seek to be relieved of the burden of thinking and judging for
themselves, Gibran encourages to begin that quest. In a world that is
occupied with trying to understand the young and with building theories about
their training, it is well to have Gibran say of children: УYou
may give them your love but not your thoughts, For
they have their own thoughts. You
may house their bodies but not their souls. For
their souls dwell in the house of tomorrow, which you cannot visit, not even
in your dreams. You
may strive to be like them, but seek not to make them like you. †For life goes not backward nor tarries with
yesterday. In
a time when all are obsessed with their self-knowledge, it is well to be
reminded:† УAnd
seek not the depths of your knowledge with staff or sounding line. †For self is a sea boundless and
measureless. Say
not, 'I have found the truth,' but rather, 'I have found a truthФ. To conclude with
his own words: УThe whole Prophet is saying one thing: Сyou are far, far
greater that you know Ц and all is wellФ. In such a majestic form, making his
prose sound like poetry and music, Gibran leads the reader Уto the threshold
of his own mindФ. *** Chapter 2.†
Linguistic Analysis
It
has become nearly a truism that style (or otherwise stated, choice and
arrangement of words) is one of the most crucial factors in creating a
desirable aesthetic effect. Very often we hear such phrases as Уthis author has
a unique and unmistakable styleФ or УitТs written in the wrong styleФ.
Obviously enough, it is not sufficient to choose "the right" words
(les mots justes). One must also know and see with "his mind's
eye" how to put the words together in such a way that the form of
writing would be conducive to the expression of the author's idea with utmost
precision. Each genre within a particular functional style presupposes (apart
from a careful selection of words) that much attention should be paid by the
author to the text's syntactic structures or rhythmical patterns which, as it
often happens, predetermine in the final analysis the essence of a particular
genre and its stylistic colouring (or "flavour" in our metaphoric
sense, i.e. something which forms the basis of the subsequent attempts by
other authors at stylizing the text in question). This
chapter is devoted to the analysis of the ways the author makes use of the
English poetic syntax and recurrent rhythmical patterns to fulfil his
peculiar "linguo-aesthetic" design. Besides we are trying to reveal
the text's lexical and syntactic features proving indisputably a close
aesthetic relationship between УThe ProphetФ and the old Oriental poetic
tradition. * І 1 Defining
the Genre УThe ProphetФ
belongs to the functional style of fiction. Preliminary acquaintance with the
book suggests that we can refer УThe ProphetФ to more than one genre:
particularly, to the genres of Уwisdom literatureФ and the genre of a sermon.
Previously we
have mentioned that genres had developed the so-called Уsynthetic formsФ,
i.e. when the elements of one genre can be successfully enough employed
within the framework of a text that belongs to another literary genre: thus
the genre of science fiction finds itself somewhere between the scientific
functional style and the style of fiction [cf. 53, c.272]. Another good
example of a synthetic genre form is the Bible, where dozens of literary
genres like a parable, a fable, a chronicle, a historical narrative, etc.
appears to be unified by a bigger genre form Ц epic narration [cf. 38]. The genre of
"The Prophet" by Kahlil Gibran can also be called a Уsynthetic
formФ of several genres. First of all, it has obvious traits of the Уwisdom
literatureФ genre, which are ostensibly felt already on the level of the
plot: among the subjects, connected with the common, every-day life of
people, such as houses, eating and drinking, clothes, there are
subjects that can be referred to as eternal, universal, like those of† love and death, time and knowledge, prayer
and religion. In GibranТs book even the most trivial, every-day objects
are used for allegoric purposes and are masterfully woven by the writer into
the fabric of epic narrative. Another
distinctive feature that allows us to consider "The Prophet" as an
example of an epic synthetic genre is that all events, though there is not
much action going on, take place, as it seems, within one day. Time is not
very important except when it is said that the main character had to wait for
his ship for many years. Time seems to be frozen, everything is as if
suspended in time. AlmustafaТs short speeches resemble short sermons. He is the teacher,
and Уthe people of OrphaleseФ are his disciples. They call him УMasterФ.
Among the basic traits of this genre are: aphoristic effect of his sayings,
allegorical character of many images that Almustafa uses, epic character of
the subjects he touches upon and the general solemn tone of his speeches.
Certain degree of didacticism is also present but the didactic communicative function
does not realize itself to the full. It is supposed to be there by the law of
the genre but becomes obliterated by the general poetic tone of the
narration. Sermon is
predominantly an oral genre Ц it presupposes oral performance, though it is
most often composed in the written form before being read in front of an
audience. Its main linguistic functions are those of communication and
impact. The ultimate goal is usually to persuade, to produce some strong
emotions, influence a personТs opinion or state of mind, and thus to turn his
life for the better. In terms of participants of communication Ц there are
two sides to it, viz. a priest (for it is the priest who usually reads
sermons) and his audience, his flock. Usually composition of a sermon is not very complex; there should be
a certain key subject or a key problematic statement that serves as a
background for further development and interpretation. The statements and
conclusions the speaker makes are to be confirmed by the quotes from reliable
sources, usually of religious nature, or by any other proof that appears to
be proper in this context. After the subject had been developed, the speaker makes the final
conclusion and calls the public to follow his instruction. The genre employs
many rhetorical devices, the most recurrent of which are solemn addresses to
the listeners УPeople of OrphaleseЕФ, rhetorical questions УFor what are your
possessions but things you keep and guard for fear you may need them
tomorrow? And what is fear of need but need itself?Ф and so on. Words of a priest (or a prophet) are supposed to inculcate reverence
and result in obedience. The importance of the message is emphasised through
the use of formal, archaic and literary words, which still should be
understandable by even the least educated audience. Therefore the words of
the general vocabulary would prevail over the formal and literary words. Another very
important condition that is to be observed in the literature of that kind is
references to reliable sources. Since УThe ProphetФ is a Уsynthetic formФ, it
does not have to and does not always follow the rules of the sermon genre.
Gibran does use quotes but introduces them in a very subtle way. The quotes
and the text are an organic whole. Other crucial
rhetoric devices used in the book are parallelism and contraries. By means of
parallel constructions Gibran creates particular rhythm within one line or
between several lines. It also helps to clarify a certain idea through
repeating it in different words. GibranТs narrative
is very poetic. The text abounds in various figures of speech and poetic
lexis creating the general effect of euphony and sumptuousness. Robin
Waterfield in his introduction to a collection of GibranТs Arabic writings
states that Уhe [Gibran] and others, such as Ameen Rihani developed the prose
poem as an Arabic form. Prose poetry may be defined as prose with poetic
emotion and rhythm; Gibran took it over from, especially, Whitman and
perfected its form in ArabicФ [6, p. xii]. This suggests an idea that the
author of УThe ProphetФ may have chosen the prose poem form for his English
writing as well. І 2 Lexical
Analysis We start the
analysis on the semantic level. Judging by the wordsТ basic nominative
meaning we can single out various groups of words united by a particular
notional sphere, sphere of use, and stylistic colouring. The Prophet's
address concerns both peopleТs every-day life and eternal matters. It touches
upon their customs, every-day responsibilities, religious matters, which
accounts for a great number of trivial words connected with domestic life of
people. The words can be easily classified by groups of names of objects,
events and abstractions, for example: occupational terms: keeper of an
inn, seeress, weaver, potter, ploughmen, mason, merchant, judge, lawyer,
orator, priestess, teacher, scholar, astronomer, poet and so on; terms of nature: sun, sea,
ocean, river, stream, fields, meadows, grove, forest, plain, wind; domestic and wild
animals/birds names: elk, deer, ox, turtle, skylark; utensils: cup, vessel; constructions: house, bower,
temple, citadel; musical instruments: flute, lyre,
harp; food and drink: bread, wine,
potion, milk, corn; agricultural/home
activities: to thresh, to sift, to grind, to crush grapes, to bake, to knead, to
ungird; abstract notions: love, life,
death, religion, self-knowledge, time, reason and passion, friendship, good
and evil, etc.; fragrances: frankincense,
myrth, mandrake, etc. Another large group of words belongs to the religious domain and are
either of the Latin, Greek or French origin.†
They are most frequently associated with religious sphere of human
life: God, the Mighty, prophet, prayer/to pray, soul, spirit, sacrifice/to
sacrifice, to worship, communion, altar, to crucify, baptism, to
sanctify, blessed, to scourge, the righteous, the wicked, resurrection, etc.
Yet another lexical group includes words and word combinations that
are directly associated with the Bible or which have been recurrently used in
various English translations of the Holy Book: verily, to deliver unto
oneТs hand (compare: УDo this now, my son, and deliver thyself, when
thou art come into the hand of thy friendЕФ (Prov. 6:3)); the sweat of
your brow (compare: УIn the sweat of thy faceЕФ (Gen. 3:19));
the seat of fear (compare: Уseat of violenceФ (Amos 6:3)); to
suffer to do smth. (compare: УЕbut the abundance of the rich will not
suffer him to sleepФ (Eccl. 5:12)); seasons meaning УtimeФ (Уto
become a stranger unto the seasonsФ compare with УTo every thing there
is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heavenЕФ (Eccl. 1:1));
chastisement, exceeding tenderness (compare: УI am thy shield, and thy
exceeding great reward (Gen. 15:1), Уan exceeding good landФ (Num.
14:7), Уan exceeding bitter cryФ (Gen. 27:34)); earth yielding
fruit (compare: Уthe tree yielding fruitФ (Gen. 1:12));
oftentimes meaning Уoften, many timesФ; to lay the axe unto the evil
tree (compare: УAnd now also the axe is laid unto the root of the
trees: therefore every tree which bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down
and cast into the fireФ (Mt. 3:10)); righteous is another word
which is marked as biblical in the dictionaries, it denotes a "just and
upright man" who sins not. Other biblical words are scourge
(Уwith hook and scourgeФ), harness (Уa harness and a chainФ), sluggard,
fouling, alms, beast, etc. A particular group of word combinations
forms the stock or traditional biblical phrases: to deliver unto oneТs
hand, to become a stranger unto, to walk among something or someone, to take
alms, to be satisfied. †Gibran also uses direct or
subtly transformed quotations from the Bible: a divided house (compare:
УAnd Jesus knew their thoughts, and said unto them, Every kingdom divided
against itself is brought to desolation; and every city or house divided
against itself shall not standЕФ (Mt. 12:25)), a den of thieves (see:
УAnd he said unto them, It is written, My house shall be called the house
of prayer; but ye have made it a den of thievesФ (Mt. 21:13)). In terms of stylistic colouring the text contains a large number of literary
words: to bear back meaning Уto bring, to carryФ, a mariner, ether
(also poetic), a wayfarer meaning Уa traveller on footФ, to
rejoice, ere (also poetic and archaic) instead of УbeforeФ, to perish,
naught instead of УnothingФ, aught (also archaic) instead of
УanythingФ, bounty (of life) meaning УgenerosityФ, pinion
meaning Уa wingФ (also poetic), to befall meaning to happen, perilous
meaning Уvery dangerousФ. Another large part of stylistically marked words constitute formal
words such as: to await, to hasten, to reckon (also archaic), meaning
Уto calculate an amountФ, chastisement, to proceed meaning Уto
go in some directionФ, to deem, an affliction, a garment, to foul, to
invoke, to heed, to defile, constancy, thither, communion, behold
and so on. Archaic words are also frequent: thither, raiment, to
abide meaning Уto live somewhereФ, to take alms, to rend meaning
Уto tear or wrench forciblyФ, to tarry meaning Уto linger, to stayФ, aught,
naught, ere, oftentimes, needs must, ay(e) meaning Уindeed,
verilyФ, yea in the meaning of УyesФ or УindeedФ. As for particular verb forms and auxiliary words such as prepositions
and conjunctions, some of them nowadays are considered antique and rarely
used: needs must, to suffer to do something, in the midst of (also
poetic) stands for Уin the middle ofФ, formal equivalents of to, on - unto,
upon, even asЕ, soЕ. In one of the chapters of his book Gibran employs
stylisation to produce an effect of a prayer: УOur God, who are our winged self, it is thy
will in us that willeth. It is thy desire in us that desireth. It is thy urge in us that would turn
our nights, which are thine, into the days which are thine
also. We cannot ask thee for aught, for thou knowest
our needs before they are born in us: Thou art our need; and in giving us more of thyself
thou givest us allФ (On Prayer). For the
creation of the biblical effect Gibran uses archaic forms of pronouns and
verbs, which are typically used in the Bible: УtheeФ, УthyФ, УthineФ, УthouФ,
УaughtФ, УartФ, УgivestФ, УknowestФ, УdesirethФ, etc. The structure of his
sentences is associative with the biblical ones: relative subordinate clauses
with pronouns УwhichФ, УthatФ or УwhoФ as subject, or complex sentence with
an adverbial clause of reason connected by conjunction УforФ. Gibran usually
uses the modal verb shall. The most
recurrent word combinations that are repeated from chapter to chapter, and
characterise the authorТs individual style are: Speak
to us ofЕ And
he answered, sayingЕ Oftentimes
have I heard you sayЕ Some
of you sayЕ But
I say (unto you)Е On the
meta-semiotic level we come to investigating the potential of words to,
roughly to say, expand or narrow their meaning. This is where the notion of connotation
comes to the fore. In the broadest sense of the word Уconnotation is all
emotional-expressive-evaluative overtones created in the text through a
specific choice and arrangement of words. It appears that some words have
wide semantic potential, which is variously realised in the context of a work
of fiction. Additional semantic-evaluative overtones merge in the mindТs eye
of the reader to create a specific meta-realityЕIn this sense there are two
basic types of connotations: the first type is largely responsible for the
creation of the meta-reality in the perception of the reader, the second Ц
only enhances the overall aesthetic sensation created by other linguistic meansЕ
Roughly speaking this means that the basic nominative meaning of words can be
either broadened in the context, acquiring additional shades of
meaning and evaluative tints in a specific word surrounding, or,
contrariwise, - contextually narrowed, i.e. used either
terminologically or purely expressively Ц for the sake of aesthetic
decoration or enhancement of the semantic and evaluative scope of other words
and phrases, or bringing forward a particular concept or an ideaФ [9, p. 52]. All this is
quite true of GibranТs work: his language is expressive and connotative: some
of the words are connotative inherently like serenity, beauty, joy,
cherished, stealthy, fetter, fouling, wicked; other acquire connotation
in the poetic environment, yet other realise more than one meaning in a
particular context. Our first
example of the connotative usage of words is taken from the opening chapter
of the book УThe Coming of the ShipФ: †And you, vast sea,
sleepless mother, †Who are
alone are peace and freedom to the river and the stream, Only another winding will this stream make, only
another murmur in this glade, And then I shall come to you, a boundless drop
to a boundless ocean. To illustrate
how words realise their semantic potential in the text and acquire in the
context a host of shades associative with the Oriental culture and
fundamental religious doctrines, let us take, for example, an attributive
word-combination Уa boundless dropФ, which in this context should be
considered in a row together with the adjacent word combination Уa
boundless oceanФ. The word УboundlessФ means Уhaving no limit or
endФ [10], УunlimitedФ (Уenthusiasts with boundless energy for their hobbyФ).
Boundless implies not only Уan infinite number of somethingФ but also
Уwithout boundariesФ. The ProphetТs idea is to become one with the One (Уa
boundless oceanФ) that is everything, to lose oneТs self in All, to dissolve
like this infinitely small and uncountable drop dissolves in the vast and
boundless body of the ocean. Gibran is playing upon the idea of the ocean as
boundless both in its expanse (seemingly so large that it has no boundaries)
and in its literal lack of any sort of boundaries within it: it is all One
ocean. A drop entering the ocean becomes УboundlessФ by having its own
boundaries dissolved and by becoming УgreatФ with the greatness of the ocean.
Thus the meaning of the word УboundlessФ becomes broadened in this allegory
of the ocean and a drop through evoking associations with the infinite number
of drops in the ocean, with complete dissolving of this drop in the vast
expanse of the ocean and the dropТs becoming as great and boundless as the
great ocean itself. †Another example is taken from the chapter
УOn GivingФ: And there are
those who give with pain and that pain is their baptism. The
conventional meaning of the term is the Уinitiation into the Christian Church
by the pouring of waterФ. There is also an expression Уbaptism by fireФ,
which refers to the situation in the early days of Christianity when those
studying to be baptized could be arrested and killed before their actual
christening ceremony. They would be recognised as true members of the Church
by virtue of the fact that they were willing to die for their belief (often
by being burned). One may also come across baptism by blood, by the sword.
УBaptism by fireФ is a fairly common English idiom for being initiated into
an activity by means of an initial struggle as opposed to the more common
route of learning. In the present
case Gibran is substituting УfireФ by УpainФ (baptism by pain),
implying that one can find salvation not only through conventional routs, but
also by being generous to the point of denying something to oneТs self in
order to give to another. The instances
of the purely expressive use of words are more frequent. Usually those words
are close in meaning and may be considered as relative synonyms. Synonymic
condensation may be regarded as a device for increasing expressivity and
creating rhythm within a sentence: Уsharing peace and serenityФ Ц serenity
implies peaceful and tranquil state of mind, calmness, thus the word peace
is used here for the sake of mere expressive colouring; Уyou may find in them
[clothes] a harness and a chainФ Ц the word harness denotes a
particular equipment of straps used either for fastening a horse of a man.
Since both words, Уa harnessФ and Уa chainФ, are used metaphorically in the
context, meaning something that limits the freedom of choice, dominates, imposes
restrictions, chain becomes redundant in terms of bringing about the
idea, but quite indispensable in terms of rhythmical soundness. Other
examples include: Уthe holy and the righteousФ, Уof magnificence and
splendourФ, Уthe pure and the innocentФ, Уa yoke and a handcuffФ, etc. І 3 Composition
and Syntax The content of
УThe ProphetФ is organised in keeping with the traditional for the Oriental
literature principle of Уframe compositionФ, which was introduced to the West
closer towards the Renaissance period [cf. 27, p.7]. The principle of the
Уframe compositionФ presupposes the narration of several stories which may be
either united by a particular subject or deal with different relatively
independent issues; told just by one person or contrariwise; the number of
the stories is unlimited; the plots and the characters may intertwine. The
narration of stories usually follows the "expositional" chapter,
which sets the scene for the future stories to be told. Thus from the
exposition in УArabian NightsФ we learn the story of the King Shahryar and
the reasons why each night Scheherazade entertained him with her tales.
Giovanni Boccaccio for his†
УDecameronФ gathers his dames and chevaliers on a distant villa far
from the plagued Florence. In УThe
ProphetФ Almustafa, who has lived in the city of Orphalese for twelve years,
is waiting for his ship so that he could return to the isle of his birth. And
when the ship comes, and Almustafa is Уready to goФ, the people appeal to him
with the words Уdisclose us to ourselves, and tell us all that has been
shown to you of that which is between birth and deathФ. Almustafa shares
with them his knowledge and wisdom; he speaks on 26 subjects such as love,
marriage, children, giving, eating and drinking, work, joy and sorrow,
houses, clothes, buying and selling, crime and punishment, laws, freedom,
reason and passion, pain, self-knowledge, teaching, friendship, talking,
time, good and evil, prayer, pleasure, beauty, religion, and death. These
chapters are within the УframeФ of AlmustafaТs waiting and leaving.
Exposition and denouement are the indispensable stages for the Уframe
compositionФ: after Almustafa had spoken of death, he bids farewell and
leaves; such is the final scene of the book. The order in
which the speeches are presented is arbitrary although we may regard the
final speech on death as a kind of culmination. The first thing
that startles the reader on opening the book is the textТs visual
organisation (not always taken into account by the web-libraries). The text
is divided into lines made as short as possible. Gibran made his prose sound
poetic; obviously, he wanted it to look like a poem too. Another effect the
author achieves by dividing the text in such a way is the aphoristic quality
almost each line or sentence receives. Each line or sentence states an idea
in its complete form. Neither of the lines serves as a mere link, Фjoint
unitФ between the preceding and the following line. Each line has its share
of aesthetic and ideological value. Not only the
text is divided into lines, it is also divided into bigger chunks within the
Prophet's speeches, united by a single image or an idea. For illustration we
take the chapter УOn DeathФ: Then Almitra spoke, saying, "We would ask now
of Death. And he said: You would know the secret of death. But how shall you find it unless you seek it in
the heart of life? The owl whose night-bound eyes are blind unto the
day cannot unveil the mystery of light. If you would indeed behold the spirit of death,
open your heart wide unto the body of life. For life and death are one, even as the river and
the sea are one. (1) * In the depth of your hopes and desires lies your
silent knowledge of the beyond; And like seeds
dreaming beneath the snow your heart dreams of spring. Trust the dreams, for in them is hidden the gate
to eternity. (2) * Your fear of death is but the trembling of the shepherd when he stands before the
king whose hand is to be laid upon him in honour. Is the sheered not joyful beneath his trembling,
that he shall wear the mark of the king? Yet is he not more mindful of his trembling? (3) * For what
is it to die but to stand
naked in the wind and to melt into the sun? And what
is to cease breathing, but to
free the breath from its restless tides, that it may rise and expand
and seek God unencumbered? (4) * Only when you drink form the river of silence shall you indeed sing. And when you have reached the mountain top, then you shall begin to climb. And when the
earth shall claim your limbs, then shall you truly dance. (5) The first chunk
introduces the idea of the deathТs incomprehensible nature, and its identical
nature with life. The second one brings about the idea of inherent knowledge
of death possessed by a human being; the sentences here are stitched by the
image of Уdreaming seedsФ. The next chunk deals with the human fear of death;
the idea of unnecessary fear is explained with the help of the image of a
Уtrembling shepherdФ, a УunitingФ feature of this thematic whole. The fourth
thematic block concerns the essence of dying; its unifying feature is the use
of lexical and syntactic parallelism. The last piece consists of three
syntactically parallel sentences; each of them employs the figure of
oxymoron. By dividing his
text into lines the author creates a euphonious rhythmical whole that is
conducive to the expression of solemnity and importance of the ideas related. * Within the bulk
of the text it is easy to single out minor and major syntactic groups,
formed by the principle of lexical synonymy or lexical opposition.
Those groups play the crucial role in creating rhythm. The words in the minor
groups are usually of the same length; the stress usually falls on the same
syllable; they are homogeneous parts of the sentence, the same parts of
speech, and connected by the conjunction УandФ: Уthe chosen and the belovedФ,
Уa burden and an acheФ, Уin peace and without sorrowФ, У a harness and a
chainФ, Уto the river and the streamФ, Уhard and steepФ, Уwillingly and
joyfullyФ, Уkeep and guardФ, Уrend and unveilФ, Уthe pure and the innocentФ,
Уof forest and plainФ, Уwith hook and scourgeФ, Уof magnificence and
splendorФ, Уa fetter and a foulingФ, Уthe holy and the righteousФ, Уalone and
unguardedФ, Уdumb and silentФ, У to toss and driftФ, Уto rise and runФ, Уthe
wicked and the weakФ, Уa deceiver and an oppressorФ, Уshall not hold Еnor
shelterФ, Уtheir fields and their vineyardsФ, Уthe guiltless and unblamedФ,
etc. Although not all the words in these pairs are direct synonyms, they are
of the same notional area and bear a certain degree of synonymity: Уa burden
and an acheФ† Ц words with inherent
negative connotation, a burden may cause physical and mental pain, distress;
Уthe pure and the innocent Ф Ц words with inherent positive connotation, both
mean free from moral wrong. Such synonymic condensation adds expressivity and
decorative attractiveness to the text. Minor syntactic
groups can also be based on the principle of lexical opposition: Уthe good
and the badФ, Уthe fruitful and the fruitlessФ, Уthe erect and the fallenФ,
Уyour sorrow and your joyФ, Уyour joy and your painФ, Уthe songs and the
silencesФ, Уthe desired and the dreadedФ, Уthe repugnant and the cherishedФ,
Уthe pursued and that which you would escapeФ, etc. Major syntactic
groups comprise larger syntactic structures, for example: Уwork is a curse
and labour a misfortuneФ, Уtheir worth naked and their pride unabashedФ,
Уlife goes not backwards nor tarries with yesterdayФ, Уto freeze and
crystallize and be bound in a mouldФ, Уrise and expand and seekФ, Уfor the
autumn days, and for the vineyard, and for the winepressФ, Уthe singers and
the dancers and the flute playersФ, etc. Those major syntactic groups are
either parallel structures, or consist of three words connected by the
conjunction УandФ. Both the minor and the major groups create certain rhythm,
but while the minor groups sound finite and complete due to their two-unit
structure, major groups, consisting of three and more words, create another
kind of rhythmical effect. This effect originates from the readerТs
anticipation of the next lexical unit following the preceding one. The scheme
is likely to look like this: УwordФ and УwordФ and УwordФ and Е Thus one word
comes after another in an УendlessФ train. Hence we come
to polysyndeton or Уmany-andsФ, a figure of speech, which presupposes
the continuous repetition of the conjunction УandФ either at the beginning of
each new sentence or in any part of it; and is often employed for
enumeration. When polysyndeton is used, the sentence never arrives at a
climax at the end. Instead of hurrying on to reach the important conclusion
the reader is asked to halt to weigh each matter, and to consider each word
that is added or emphasized. Such word chain
creates a specific rhythm, which may be called УextendedФ, because the
lexical group can be easily extended with the help of another УandФ, another
word, or another sentence. Such figure of speech is typical of the Oriental
poetics and is called УtaushiФ or УwindingФ identical to the
traditionally known figure of amplification (when new parts are added
to the initial sentence thus considerably extending it) [cf. 46]. An extract
from УArabian NightsФ illustrates this point very clearly: ЕThen King Shahryar, having sealed the missive and given it to the
Wazir with the offerings aforementioned, commanded him to shorten his
skirts and strain his strength and make all expedition in
going and returning. УHarkening and obedience!Ф quoth the Minister, who fell
to making ready without stay and picked up his loads and
prepared all the requisites without delay. This occupied him three days,
and on the dawn of the fourth he took leave of his King and marched right
away, over the desert and hallway, stony waste and pleasant sea,
without halting by night or by day. But whenever he entered a realm
whose ruler was subject to his suzerain, where he was greeted with
magnificent gifts of gold and silver and all manner of presents fair and
rare, he would tarry there three days, the term of the guest rite. And
when he left on the fourth, he would be honorably escorted for a whole dayТs
march. As soon as the Wazir drew near Shah ZamanТs court in Samarkand he
dispatched to report his arrival one of his high officials, who presented
himself before the King and, kissing ground between his hands, delivered his
message. Hereupon the King commanded sundry of his grandees and the lords of
his realm to fare forth and meet his brotherТs Wazir at the distance
of a full dayТs journey. Which they did, greeting him respectfully and
wishing him all prosperity and forming an escort and a
procession [I-net link 7]. Amplification and polysyndeton are among the
key biblical figures of speech. The first chapter of the Old Testament, for example,
consists of 31 verses and only two of them do not begin with the conjunction
УandФ[5].
The principle
of adducing one word after another with the help of the conjunction УandФ
exposes the connection between GibranТs book and the Oriental poetics, in
particular, with the biblical style. In addition to the effect of an
unhurried, epic narration such speech organization also creates a very clear
rhythmical pattern. A short piece
from the chapter УOn WorkФ is a good example of polysyndeton and
amplification: You have been
told also that life is darkness, and
in your weariness you echo what was said by the weary, And I say that life is indeed darkness save when there is urge, And all urge is blind save when there is knowledge, And all knowledge is vain save when there is work, And all work is empty save when there is love; And when you work with love you bind yourself to yourself, and to one another, and to God. The next
characteristic feature of the bookТs syntax is the use of inversion.
Inversion is a very powerful device for creation of a particular poetic
effect, rhythm, or emphasizing a particular word or word combination. Gibran
employs inversion rather often: Long were the days of pain
I have spent within its walls, and long
were the nights of aloneness;
and who can depart from his pain and his aloneness without regret? Too many fragments of the spirit have I scattered in these streets, and too many are the
children of my longingЕ It is not a
garment I cast off this day, but a skin that I tear with my own hands. Nor is it a thought I leave behind me,
but a heart made sweet with hunger and with thirst. ЕFain would I take all that is here.
But how shall I? A voice cannot carry
the tongue and the lips that gave it wings. Alone must it seek the ether. And alone and
without his nest shall the
eagle fly across the sun. ЕHow often have you sailed in my dreams. And
now you come in my awakening, which is my deeper dream. Ready am I to go, and my eagerness with sails full set awaits the
wind. Only another
breath will I breathe in this
still air, only another loving look cast backwardsЕ Only another
winding will this stream makeЕ ЕAnd ever has it been that love knows not its
own depth until† the hour of
separation. ЕProphet of
God, in quest of the uttermost, long have
you searched the
distances for your ship. Here inversion
becomes the device for making prose sound musical, almost like a song. By
placing the verb ending with a sonorous consonant [l], [m] before the
diphthong [ai] Gibran achieves the effect of the Уsound liaisonФ. Sonorous
sounds can be prolonged. With the words arranged in the direct order the
sound prolongation would have been impossible. For the sake of
rhythm, inversion may emphasise modal verbs so that the stress falls at equal
intervals creating the effect of isochrony: Alone and
without his nest shall the eagle fly across the sun. †† _ _†††† _ _ _††† _ _†† _† _††
_† _†† _ _†† _ _ Inversion is a
very powerful emphatic device. In order to bring forward certain words Gibran
places an adjective or a participle after the noun they modify, thus breaking
the traditional word order: Уto see their worth naked and their pride unabashedФ,
or Уa heart enflamed and a soul enchantedФ, or Уthat temple
invisibleФ. Thus the logical stress falls on the words in italics. Syntactic
inversion creates the musical effect and particular rhythmical patterns
especially valuable for oral reading. Thus inversion constitutes another
characteristic feature of the style of the book. The last
syntactic device to be discussed in this paper is parallelism Ц in
rhetoric Ц a technique of placing ideas of equal importance in the same type
of construction so as to emphasize their similarity [3, p. 217]. Parallelism
plays the primary role in creating the bookТs unique style often called
УGibranianФ. In fact, it is the main principle of the whole textТs syntactic
organization. There are parallels within a single sentence; there are parallel
sentences; syntactic and semantic parallels can also be drawn between distant
parts of the book. Parallelism,
either lexical or syntactic, is the most distinguishing feature of the
Oriental poetics. Persian and Arab classical poetry is practically without
exception based on parallelism: УThe basic features of sadge (one of
the stages in development of the classical Arabic verse) are parallelism and
rhyme. The third rule that has to be observed is to keep equal quantity of
words in each line, thus making the lines equally longФ [46, p.77]. The Bible
is another example of a text where this device clarifies the meaning and
creates a rhythm in the sentence. GibranТs
parallelism can be lexico-syntactic and syntactic, based on semantic synonymy
or antonymic relations. The examples of the lexical-syntactic parallel
structures are as follows: 1 And his soul cried out to them, and he said: 2
Sons of my ancient mother, you riders of the tides, 3 How often have you sailed in my dreams. And now
you come in my awakening, which is my deeper dream. 4 Ready am I to go, and my eagerness with sails
full set awaits the wind. 5 Only another breath will I breathe in
this still air, only another loving look cast backwards, 6 And then I shall stand among you, a
seafarer among seafarers. 7
And you, vast sea, sleepless mother, 8 Who are alone are peace and freedom to the river and the stream, 9 Only another winding will this stream
make, only another murmur in this glade, 10 And then I shall come to you, a boundless
drop to a boundless ocean (The
Coming of the Ship) Lexical and
syntactic parallel structures are shown in bold font. Line 2 is parallel to
line 7, line 5 Ц to line 9, and line 6 Ц to line 10. Line 2 sets the pattern
for line 7. The form of address is identical in both lines: УyouФ +
apposition, when two noun phrases stand side-by-side with the second adding
information to the first. The structure of the 5th, 6th
, 9th and 10th lines are identical not only in terms of
syntax but in terms of lexical units as well. The 5th and the 6th
lines constitute a sentence of the following pattern: УOnly anotherФ + noun +
auxiliary verb + subject + Е.., Уonly anotherФ + noun + Е. , Уand thenФ +
subject + predicate† + apposition.
Lines 9 and 10 follow this pattern. Lexical parallelism is represented by the
repetition of words within a single line as well as in corresponding lines:
Уonly anotherФ, Уand then I shallФ, Уa seafarer among seafarersФ, Уa
boundless drop to a boundless oceanФ. Another characteristic
example of syntactic parallelism is found in the chapters "On Work"
and "On Freedom": And what is it to work with love? It is to weave the cloth with the threads drawn from your
heart, even as if your beloved were to wear that cloth. It is to build a house with affection, even as if your
beloved were to dwell in that house. It is to sow seeds with tenderness and reap the harvest with joy, even as if
your beloved were to eat the fruit. It is to charge all things you fashion with the breath of
your own spirit, And to know that all the blessed dead are standing about you and
watching. * And if it is a care you would cast
off, that care has been chosen by you rather than imposed upon you. And if it is a fear you would dispel, the seat of
that fear is in your heart and not in the hand of the feared (On Freedom). The next
extract illustrates the principle of semantic antonymic parallelism with the
full or partial antonyms used in adjacent lines and the structures of the
first and the second sentences being parallel: But I say that even as the holy and the righteous cannot
rise beyond the highest which is in each one of you, So the wicked and the weak cannot fall lower than
the lowest which is in you also. And as a single leaf turns not yellow but with
the silent knowledge of the whole tree, So the wrong-doer cannot do wrong without the
hidden will of you all (On Crime and Punishment). Syntactic
pattern of the two sentences looks like this: even asЕЕ, so Е. Within the
first sentence there is an antonymic parallel construction. УThe holy and the
righteousФ are antonyms of† Уthe
wicked and the weakФ, Уrise higher beyond the highestФ stands against Уfall
lower than the lowestФ. An extract from
the chapter УOn PleasureФ can serve as an example of the semantically
synonymic parallelism: Pleasure
is a freedom-song, But
it is not freedom. It
is the blossoming of your desires, But
it is not their fruit. It
is the depth calling unto the height, But
it is not the deep nor the high. It
is the caged taking wing, But
it is not space encompassed. Ay,
in very truth, pleasure is a freedom-song. † Here is an
example of the syntactic and semantic parallelism based both on synonymy and
antonymic relations: What judgement pronounce you upon him who
though honest in the flesh yet is a thief in the spirit? What penalty lay you upon him, who slays in the
flesh yet is himself slain in the spirit? (On Crime and Punishment) Semantically,
Уto pronounce judgementФ and Уto lay a penaltyФ are relative synonyms; Уupon
him who though honest in the flesh yet is a thief in the spiritФ and Уhim,
who slays in the flesh yet is himself slain in the spiritФ are semantically
antonymic constructions. Parallelism can
also be found in distant chapters of the book. In the chapter УOn Crime and
PunishmentФ Gibran expresses the idea of the manТs pigmy-self: УMuch in you
is still man, and much in you is not yet man, / But a shapeless pigmy
that walks asleep in the mist searching for its own awakeningФ. The chapter
УOn Good and EvilФ echoes the same idea: УIn your longing for your giant
self lies your goodness and that longing is in all of youФ. Thus an
opposition of pygmy/giant self is created. Parallels can
also be drawn between the chapter УOn HousesФ and the closing chapter of the
book УFarewellФ. The idea of a second Уlarger bodyФ of a man receives the
final touch on the last pages of the book: УFor even as you have home-comings
in your twilight, so had the wanderer in you, the ever distant and alone. /
Your house is your larger body. / It grows in the sun and sleeps in the
stillness of the night, and it is not dreamless. / Does not your house dream?
and dreaming, leave the city for grove or hilltop?Ф compare: УBut sweeter
still than laughter and greater than longing came to me. / It was the
boundless in you; / The vast man in whom you are all but cell and sinews;Е /
It is in the vast man that you are vastФ. Another no less important figure of speech is a lexical-semantic
contrast (or contraries), by means of which one considers opposite or
incompatible things. This figure occurs in pairs of lexical units, which
basically exclude one another. This rhetorical figure is quite characteristic
of the biblical style and Arabic poetry: Your joy is your sorrow unmaskedЕ ЕThat which seems most feeble and bewildered
in you is the strongest and most determined. ЕBut the hunter was also the hunted;Е And the flier was also the creeper;Е And I the believer was also the doubterЕ ЕShall the day of parting be the day of
gathering? And shall it be said that my eve was in truth my dawn?,
etc. In what follows
we adduce a list of the most recurrent lexical-syntactic peculiarities of the
book including our observations in terms of Major syntax: 1)
non-conjunction compound sentence; 2)
compound sentences with and or but; 3)
complex sentence with the adverbial clause of reason connected by
conjunction УforФ: УFor what is your friend that you should seek him with
hours to kill?Ф, УFor it is his to fill your need, but not your emptinessФ,
УFor without words, in friendship, all thoughts, all desires, all
expectations are born and shared, with joy that is un-acclaimedФ; 4)
complex sentences with conditional, time and other types of subordinate
clauses with the main clause ending with УalsoФ: УIf he must know the ebb of
your tide, let him know its flood alsoФ, УAnd when the black thread breaks,
the weaver shall look into the whole cloth, and he shall examine the loom
alsoФ, УIt is thy urge in us that would turn our nights, which are thine,
into days which are thine alsoФ. 5)
adverbial clauses of manner or comparison introduced by† even asЕ, so..; asЕ, soЕ; ЕasЕ; 6)
relative subordinate clause with pronouns УwhichФ, УthatФ or УwhoФ as
subject: УBut I say that even as the holy and the righteous cannot rise
beyond the highest which is in each one of you / So the wicked and the weak
cannot fall lower than the lowest which is in you alsoФ, УWhen you are
joyous, look deep into your heart and you shall find it is only that which
has given you sorrow that is giving you joyФ, УWhat judgement pronounce you
upon him who though honest in the flesh yet is a thief in the spiritФ, УBut
let not him, who longs much say to him, who longs littleЕФ. Compare it with
the Bible: УAnd the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which
goeth toward the east of AssyriaФ (Gen. 2:11-14), УЕat the valley of
Shaveh, which is the kingТs daleФ, УThey have moved me to jealousy with that,
which is not GodФ; 7)
sentences beginning with the modal verb УwouldФ: УWould that you
could meet sun with more of your skin and less of your raiment?Ф, УI would
have them seekФ, УWould that I could gather your houses into my hand, and
like a sower scatter them in forest and meadowФ, etc.; 8)
inversion used for creating rhythm, poetic flavour, and prolonging
sonorous sounds. Compare with the Bible: УIn the sweat of thy face shalt
thou eat breadЕand unto dust shalt thou returnФ (Gen 3:19); 9)
lexicalised negative particle not: verb + not; Еsubj
+ do smth not, neither do + subj + verb: УЕthey toil not, neither do they
spinФ (Mt 6:28). УThe ProphetФ: УIt knows not the ways of the mole
nor seeks it in the holes of the serpentФ and УFor life goes not
backwards nor tarries with yesterdayФ; УThe soul walks not upon
a line, neither does it grow like a reedФ; УFor the truly good asks
not the nakedЕФ; УAnd seek notЕФ; УFor the vision of one man lends
not its wings to another manФ. І 4 Decorative
Elements The principal
decorative elements of УThe ProphetФ are rhythm and alliteration. Previously
we have noted that syntactically the text is organized in such a way that
every line gets its own rhythmical prominence. The main devices that create
those patterns are: polysyndeton, inversion, lexical-semantic contrasts, and
parallelism. Rhythmical
euphony is also achieved by means of recurrent minor two-unit lexical groups. In terms of
sound repetition it is possible to speak of the use of assonance and alliteration.
Certain vowels of the same or similar quality are repeated in adjacent or
closely connected words. The most common is the repetition of a vowel in two
or three closely connected words, for instance in such phrases as: Уit will
but lead some to greed and others to hungerФ, Уthe freedom of privacyФ, Уhidden
willФ, Уwith more of your skin and less of your raimentФ, Уto feel your bare
feetФ, sleeps in the stillnessФ, Уthe lute that sooths your spirit the very
wood that was hollowed with knivesФ, Уwas filled with your tearsФ, Уthe more
joy you can containФ, Уare you at standstill and balancedФ, Уthe wicked and
the weakФ, Уthe courage and the confidenceФ, Уto freeze and crystallizeФ,
Уtoilers of the sea and fields and vineyards meet the weaversФ, Уsleep
peacefully upon the wind till the needs of the least of you are satisfiedФ,
Уas the holy and the righteous cannot rise beyond the highestФ, Уfall lower
than the lowest which is in you alsoФ, Уyou walk together towards your
god-selfФ, Уknows not the ways of the mole nor seeks it in the holesФ. Not
infrequently Gibran alludes the repetition of sonorous sounds and
alliteration in the rhythmicalized sequences: Уfind abundanceФ,
Уwind who has woven the clothes we wearФ,
Уa fetter and a foulingФ, clothes concealФ,
the softening of the sinewsФ, Уwinds
long to playФ, Уwhose door is the morning mist
and whose windows are the songs and the silences
of nightФ, Уbuild a bowerФ, Уfruit and frankincenseФ,
Уthe wicked and the weakФ, Уthe courage
and the confidenceФ, Уlike a sower scatters themФ, Уthat
stealthy thingФ, Уit lulls you to sleepФ,
Уboundless in you abides in the mansion of the
skyФ, Уto become a stranger unto the seasons and
to step out of lifeТs procession that marches in majesty
and proud submissionФ, Уeven as if your beloved
were to dwell in that houseФ, Уbe not trapped nor tamedФ,
Уnor seeks in the holes of the serpentФ, Уthe light
that lingersФ, Уrise and run murmuringФ, Уlike
a lotus of countless petalsФ, Уstrong
and swiftФ, Уlimp before the lameФ. Surprisingly
enough "The Prophet" seems to be bearing the basic rhythmical
traits of the Oriental classical poetry. The quantitative nature of the
classical Arab verse predetermines the distinct rhythmical organisation of
speech; parallelism also creates rhythm and requires the lines to be of the
same length; before rhyme became a necessary requirement for a perfect Arabic
verse, alliteration was the main means of the sound decoration. УRhythmical
organisation of rhetorical, homiletic and, actually, any other kind of speech
Ц writes a specialist on Arabic poetics D. Frolov Ц has become almost an
inborn habit among the ArabsФ [63, c.79]. * Part III
Stylisation
in Translation
In this chapter
we deal primarily with the ways and methods of stylisation aimed at
preserving and rendering in the target text a specific national-literary and
socio-cultural colouring of the source text. In the appendix to the paper we
adduce our own exercise in stylised translation of "The Prophet" by
Kahlil Gibran, in which we paid special attention to the adequate rendering
of the central notional and linguistic features conditioned by the Oriental
(Biblical and Sufi) poetic literary traditions described in detail in the
first Part of the book, as well as the words and phrases bearing a strong
archaic and solemn flavour. In this our attempt we naturally referred to the
Russian Synodal Translation of the Bible and occasionally compared our
findings with the turns of phrase found in the Church Slavonic translation of
the Scriptures since this text is widely accepted by the educated Russian
speaking community as an example of poetic euphony and religious
sumptuousness, perfectly suitable for the purposes of church liturgy and
forming the indispensable foundation of homiletic eloquence in the Russian
Orthodox Churches. І 1 Culturally Specific Elements in the Translation of Fiction According to V.Ivir, Уtranslation is based on an interplay of forces
only one of which is linguistic in the narrow sense of the term, that is, resulting
form the contact of two language systems. Other forces are extralinguistic
(resulting from the contact of two cultures) sociolinguistic,
psycholinguistic, and stylisticФ. Alexander Shveitser, a Russian theoretician
of a great authority in the field of translation, also writes: УЕtranslation
is both a linguistic and a cultural phenomenon, cutting across boundaries of
languages and cultures (not only Sprachmittung but also Kulturmittung)Ф
[4, p. 7]. One of the
problematic aspects in the sphere of translation concerns the possibility of
preserving not only the overall sense of a work of fiction but its national
and cultural flavour as well. Kornej Chukovsky said: УLet the syntax be
Russian, but the style and the colouring should, as much as possible, be of
the original 1Ф [69, p.83]. A literary work
is historically conditioned and, consequently, unique. A complete identity
between the original and a translation is impossible, as there is none
between an original and a copy. Therefore it is impossible to preserve the
specific traits of the original to the full extent [42, p.129]. However, the
relation of a translation to the original is of a special nature: translation
does not tolerate the practice of saying more than the original intends to
say. Translation is Уthe imitation of the originalФ, Уwhen the original is
represented in a different linguo-cultural contextФ [70, p.66] and Уon a
differed materialФ [42, p.129]. The primary rule of translation runs as follows: translating a work
of fiction implies its rendering in a different language uniting the form and
the content in the best possible way which results in producing the final
impression on the reader equal and adequate to the impression of the original
[cf. 42, p.127-129]. The form of the original cannot be preserved
mechanically; we can only reproduce its meaning and aesthetic value. It means
that it is impossible to render all the nationally or historically specific
elements of the original Ц it appears therefore that a translator needs to
create an illusion of a particular national or historical environment
[42, p. 129]. Since fiction literature reflects in its imagary a particular reality
related to life of a particular nation, it is important to render the
national colouring of the original to the extent this colouring is present in
the original. The preservation of the original flavour of the original
presupposes its functionally correct understanding and the adequate rendering
of the whole complex of various elements [61, p.277]. The contrast between the original text and the target text is
intensified by the contrast between the two cultures (the source and the
target ones). Cultural clash becomes particularly striking when one culture
begins to dominate another one. The predominance of the source culture is
manifested in the abundance of УexoticismsФ, foreign realia, alien to the
source culture. On the contrary, the predominance of the target culture
results in partial or complete УdomesticationФ or УnaturalisationФ of the
text, Уleading to the Russification of English texts, or Germanisation of
FrenchФ [4, p.16] and the irrevocable loss of what is thought to be the
textТs foreign flavour and cultural colouring. The very first question any translator has to face is the scope of
national or cultural elements he/she is supposed to preserve. In this
connection we should refer to the dialectic principle of the individual and
the common, or the part and the whole. A translator needs to resolve the task
of determining the importance of the details, on the one hand, and subjecting
them to the whole, on the other. Certainly, his primary goal is to render the
whole, but it is necessary to preserve all the semantic elements as well [42,
p. 141]. TranslatorТs adherence to the method of rendering individual elements
leads to the УexactФ translation, plain and slavish, lacking the creativity
and imagination[6].
Other translators in their attempt to embrace the whole are ready to
sacrifice individual elements or particular ideas [42, p 141]. Thus where a word has no independent meaning and its role is reduced
to being a part of the whole, one should translate the whole occasionally
neglecting the meaning of separate words. Stable word combinations, idioms
and the majority of sayings and proverbs are translated in such a way. When
dealing with the problem of adequate rendering of imagery one should also
take into account the secondary relations between the words, the way they
reflect the semantic reality and the correlation between an idea and its
imaginative expression. Therefore even a slightest detail deserves a
scrupulous translation, especially when it is an element of a higher level Ц
the authorТs style, speech characteristics and so on [42, p. 141]. All the above
said led the scholars in the field of translation to the elaboration of
several principles of preservation of the original national flavour, the most
crucial of which are: a)
it is advisable to preserve only those national/cultural specific
elements that can be perceived by the reader as foreign, alien to the target
culture, as carrying Уthe national or historical flavourФ; b)
artistic means which have no equivalent in the target language and
which do not enhance the illusion of the foreign environment, can be
substituted by neutral, non-marked means unable to evoke any associations
with a particular place or time [42, p. 130]. І 2 Translation of Culturally Specific Concepts There are quite
a few culturally specific notions in "The Prophet" which have
direct Russian equivalents and can be transposed into the target language
directly. Such words do not belong to the Russian national worldview and are
invariably perceived with a particular implication.†† Such words as myrth,
cypress, frankincense, the names of Almustafa, Almitra and
the month Ielool (meaning in Arabic the month of the rising moon),
mentioning the gatherers of spices, all add Oriental, especially Arabic
flavour to the work. They were translated correspondingly as мирт,
кипарис, ладан, јльмустафа, »елул, собиратели пр¤ностей. The notional basis of all allegoric images, such as flute, wine,
vineyard, sower, love, Archer, beloved, arrows, weaving, streams, oceans and
so on, has been preserved. Polyphony presents considerable difficulty for a translator of this
book and should be dealt with the utmost care: a translator is supposed to
find a word in the target language that would allow an equally broad
polyphonic interpretation of the corresponding source word which often
presents quite a big problem. Some cases are less intricate, some are more,
like the one in the chapter УOn PrayerФ: When you pray you rise to meet in the air
those who are praying at that very hour, and whom save in prayer you may not
meet. Therefore let your visit to that temple invisible
be for naught but ecstasy and sweet communion. The word communion
may be associated both with a) the Christian ceremony of Eucharist, b) a
fellowship, a special relationship with someone whom you understand very
well, and c) with a group of people that share the same religious beliefs.
The allegory of a prayer compared with entering the temple suggests that the
line may be interpreted in the following way: you pray and thus enter into
spiritual union with those who pray at the same hour. However, since the act
of prayer is allegorically compared to the temple, the association with the
religious ceremony immediately comes into mind. In Russian the word
"причастие"1, a natural equivalent
of communion, carries only the idea of the religious ceremony, while
another Russian word УединениеФ suggests the spiritual union only. Therefore
the most appropriate word in this case seemed to be УприобщениеФ for the
Russian Language Dictionary defines Уприобщитьс¤Ф as 1) Увключитьс¤ в
какую-нибудь де¤тельность, стать участником чего-либо; 2) у верующих:
причаститьс¤ (устар.) причаститьс¤ св¤тых таинств. Thus the suggested translation of this line sounds as follows:
Уѕотому приходите в этот храм незримый лишь ради великой радости и
сладостного приобщени¤Ф. There are other
simpler cases, which yet require conformity with the overall notional core of
the book: Say not, УI
have found the path of the soul.Ф Say rather, УI have met the soul
walking upon my path.Ф For the soul walks upon all paths. The word path that can be rendered in Russian as УтропаФ,
УпутьФ, УдорогаФ, in the context of Sufism path cannot be translated
in any other way than УпутьФ, because one of the crucial Sufi concepts
literally means the Path, ѕуть (Tariqat). Another example of word polyphony is found in the chapter УOn DeathФ: The owl whose night-bound eyes are blind unto the
day cannot unveil the mystery of light. The allegory of an owl may be interpreted in several ways: first, it
may imply an average person, a pygmy-self of a man, who is blind to the light
of the day and Уwalks asleep in the darkФ. Then in such a state of the spirit
he is unlikely to understand, perceive the mystery of light, the divine
Truth. The second interpretation implies a false prophet who is unable to
open the Truth to the others. Other interpretations are possible. In order to
preserve at least two of the probable interpretations of such an allegory we
suggest translating the phrase "to unveil the mystery" as Ураскрыть
тайнуФ, Уприподн¤ть завесу над тайной солнечного светаФ rather than Упостичь
тайну светаФ, Упроникнуть в тайнуФ, Уоткрыть тайнуФ. І 3 Translating Stylistically Marked Lexical Set A particular group of words in УThe ProphetФ directly associated with
the Bible, or thoroughly used through the Holy Book, plays an important role
in conveying the biblical flavour. Therefore it was necessary to find the
Russian equivalents that would also create relevant biblical associations for
the Russian reader. By way of an experiment we referred to the Russian
Synodal Translation of the Bible in order to see which Russian words create
the biblical effect, and whether they could really be called biblical. Of
course, in doing so we had to refer to those Biblical verses which contained
the words we were interested in. Another point that had to be kept in mind is
that the Russian Bible was not translated from English, but from Greek. Both
the King James Version of the Bible and the Russian Synodal Translation were
based as it were on the third source. However they both slavishly followed
the original, copying and rendering literally unusual phrasing, even
preserving striking images and figurative expressions because no deviation
from GodТs word could be thought of. Such slavish faithfulness to every word
allowed establishing certain points of lexical similarities between the
variants of the Bibles, and obtaining the necessary equivalents. Thus where in the King James Bible the word verily is used Ц
in the Russian Bible stands the word воистину, истинно: УVerily I say unto you, There be some standing here, which
shall not taste of death, till they see the Son of man coming in his kingdomФ (Mt 16:28)
compare: У»стинно говорю вам: есть некоторые из вас сто¤щих,
которые не вкус¤т смертиЕФ (ћат 16, 28). A stock phrase УBut I say unto youФ (Mt 12:36)
has the traditional Russian equivalent of У»бо/а ¤ говорю (же) вамЕФ. Another biblical word, seasons, usually meaning УtimeФ,
corresponds to the Russian neutral word Уврем¤Ф: УTo every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose
under the heavenЕФ (Eccl 3:1) compare with: У¬сему
свое врем¤, и врем¤ вс¤кой вещи под небомЕФ (≈ккл. 3,1).
Therefore it may be possible to render the archaic and biblical colouring by
syntactic means only. The Russian УнаказаниеФ stands where the English chastisement occurs:
УЕthe chastisement of the LordЕФ (Deut 11:2) Ц† Унаказани¤ √осподаФ; УЕthe
chastisement of our peaceЕФ (Is.
53:5) Ц Унаказание мираФ; etc. Presently chastisement
would mean Уa form of severe criticism or rebukeФ thus matching in meaning
the Russian Усерьезное порицаниеФ. However in old times the word used to mean
Уphysical punishment, especially by beatingФ. Thus in the translation of УThe
ProphetФ it would be more correct to render chastisement as
УнаказаниеФ in accordance with the biblical tradition: УBut regret is the
beclouding of the mind and not its chastisementФ (On Pleasure) Ц У–аска¤ние -
смущение разума, но не наказание егоФ. Beloved is the word
that both in English and Russian bears the touch of elevated style. The
Russian УвозлюбленныйФ, Увозлюбленна¤Ф are probably the best
equivalents for this word for they can be easily associated with the
Canticles (Song of Solomon) thus achieving the desirable biblical and poetic
effect. The word sluggard that sounds nowadays a little
old-fashioned to the contemporary English reader is used in the book of
Proverbs to denote a lazy person. The Russian translation of the Bible
employs either УленивецФ (ѕрит. 6, 6), or УленивыйФ (ѕрит. 10, 26). The
Russian УленивецФ and УленивыйФ are neutral and bear no archaic
marking, therefore it is unlikely to be rendered by lexical means. Biblical archaic adverb yea can sometimes point out the
places of occurrence of the Russian outdated interjection УейФ meaning
Уindeed, truly, verilyФ. Recurrent in the King James Bible, Russian
interjection УейФ is definitely more rarely found throughout the
Russian text of the Bible. The equivalents of traditional biblical phrases and collocations can
also be revealed when comparing the corresponding phrases in the Russian
Synodal Translation. It would be natural to preserve some recurrent GibranТs
phrases borrowed from the Holy Book as they exist in its Russian version. In the previous chapters we have already mentioned the quotations
from the Bible such as a divided house and a den of thieves: УAnd
Jesus knew their thoughts, and said unto them, Every kingdom divided against
itself is brought to desolation; and every city or house divided against
itself shall not standЕФ (Mt 12:25)), a den of thieves (see: УAnd
he said unto them, It is written, My house shall be called the house of
prayer; but ye have made it a den of thievesФ (Mt 21:13)). The only
possible way of translating those collocations is to find their equivalents
in the Russian text of the Bible: УЕи вс¤кий город или дом, разделившийс¤
сам в себе, не устоитЕФ (ћат. 12, 25); У» если дом разделитс¤ сам в
себе, не может усто¤ть дом тотФ (ћар. 3, 25). Thus GibranТs УFor a
divided house is not a den of thieves; it is only a divided houseФ can be
translated as У»бо дом, разделившийс¤ в себе,† - еще не вертеп разбойников; это просто дом, где нет согласи¤Ф.
Correspondingly, a den of thieves is
Увертеп разбойниковФ: У» говорил им: написано: Умой дом домом молитвы
наречетс¤, а вы сделали его вертепом разбойниковФ (ћат. 21, 13). Almost in every chapter the sermon of the Prophet is preceded by the
phrase Уand he answered, sayingФ. In many chapters of the Bible the
words of Jesus are also introduced by identical stock phrase. The Russian
Bible uses the phrase У» он сказал им в ответЕФ (ћат. 12,39), (ћат. 13,11),
which we suggest for our translation in order to follow the authorТs design.
A biblical phrase in the sweat of thy face has a
traditional Russian equivalent Ув поте лица своегоФ. GibranТs phrase У the
sweat of your browФ is very close to the biblical one and therefore can
also be rendered in the translation by means of the mentioned Russian expression,
or its variation without changes to the notional layer of this expression
(i.e. it is unreasonable to substitute УлицоФ by УлобФ or УбровьФ). Here is
one of the variants of translation: УЕthen I answer that naught but the sweat
of your brow shall wash away that which is writtenФ (On Work) Ц У“о отвечу
вам, что только потом лица своего смоете начертанноеФ. A stock expression to lay the axe unto the evil tree
used in metaphoric sense creates association with the Gospels: УAnd now
also the axe is laid unto the root of the trees: therefore every tree which
bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down and cast into the fireФ (Mt
3:10). У”же и секира при корне дерев лежит: вс¤кое дерево, не
принос¤щее доброго плода, срубают и бросают в огонь;ЕФ (ћат. 3, 10).
Some of the Russian equivalents could be: Уѕодн¤ть топор на худое древо/
¬ырубить худое древоФ. An expression to become a stranger unto the seasons
reminds of the Biblical Psalm 69 verse 8: УI am become a stranger unto my
brethrenЕФ Ц У„ужим стал ¤ дл¤ братьев своихЕФ. Therefore the Russian
equivalent of the original phrase may sound alike: Устать чужим дл¤ времениФ. †Another example is the
verb to satisfy. An interesting thing about it is that in
ninety percent of all cases this verb stands in the Bible in its passive form
be satisfied and often at the end of a sentence. Its Russian biblical
equivalent is Унасытитьс¤Ф, Унасыщатьс¤Ф, Удосыта естьФ and in one case Убыть
довольнымФ. Kahlil Gibran uses the passive form be satisfied in the
chapter УOn Buying and SellingФ: УIt is in exchanging the gifts of the
earth that you shall find abundance and be satisfied. / Yet unless the
exchange be in love and kindly justice, it will but lead some to greed and
others to hungerФ. Gibran traditionally uses lexical-semantic contrasts,
which usually occur in pairs, create opposition, and, consequently, exclude
one another [cf. I-net link 1]: Уfind abundance and be satisfiedФ contrary
Уit may lead some to greed and others to hungerФ. In order to preserve the
contrast Уbe satisfiedФ should be translated as Унасытитьс¤Ф and not as Убыть
довольным/удовлетвореннымФ: У»бо в обмене дарами земли обретете достаток во
всем и насытитесьФ. The expression to take alms sounds archaic in Modern
English. The Russian equivalents собирать милостыню, просить пода¤ни¤ are
stylistically neutral in contrast with the expression to do alms Ц творить
милостыню. Therefore the solutions are either to find archaic equivalents
for собирать and просить, the first part of the Russian
expression, or by means of syntax. To walk among somebody or
something is another example of literal translation from Hebrew. This
expression has been rendered in Russian in a similar way: Уходить среди
кого-либоФ (Ћев. 26, 12); Упойти посреди напастейФ (ѕс. 137, 7); Уходить
междуЕ сто¤щими здесьФ («ах. 3, 7). To deliver unto oneТs hand is a
traditional biblical expression along with to deliver from oneТs hand, to
deliver from something. In the Russian tradition it preserved the same grammatical
structure and verbal expression: УотдатьЕ на рукиФ (Ѕыт. 42, 37);
УотдатьЕ в рукиФ (¬тор. 1, 27); УпредатьЕ в рукуФ (¬тор. 2, 30).
Thus the phrase УFor the law that delivered you into my hand shall
deliver me into a mightier handФ in the chapter УOn Eating and DrinkingФ may
be translated as У»бо закон, что отдает теб¤ в руку мою, предаст мен¤ руке
еще более могущественнойФ.
As a general
conclusion we may say that the majority of traditionally biblical words and
expressions in Russian lack the stylistic colouring, which their English
counterparts possess, for example, chastisement, sluggard, season(s), to
take alms, to suffer to do something. One of the possible ways of
preserving the archaic colouring is either to use the УbiblicalФ syntactic
patterns that already sound archaic, or intentionally substitute a neutral
word in the immediate surroundings of the archaic word with an alike lexical
unit. Thus it will also be possible to preserve the elevated style of the
narration by using the elevated and literary words: УпознатьФ (literary),
УобрестиФ (literary), УчелоФ (archaic, elevated), УвратаФ (archaic),
Уначертанное (прокл¤тье)Ф (elevated), Уприобщитьс¤Ф (archaic), Уобу¤тьФ
(elevated), Уубо¤тьс¤Ф (archaic), УпребыватьФ (literary), УснизойтиФ (archaic,
elevated), archaic and literary conjunctions УдабыФ, УибоФ. І 4 Syntactic Stylisation in the Translation Certain
sentence types and syntactic patterns characteristic of the English Bible and
GibranТs book correspond to particular patterns of the Russian Bible. This
observation facilitated their translation into Russian and helped to create
biblical flavour in a great number of GibranТs lines. The most
recurrent sentence type is the complex sentence with an adverbial clauses of
manner or comparison introduced by even asЕ, soЕ; asЕ, soЕ; ЕasЕ[11].
The Russian conjunctions for this sentence type are какЕ, такЕ. In the Bible: УAs
snow in summer, and as rain in harvest, so honour is not seemly
for a fool. As the bird by wandering, as the swallow by flying,
so the curse causeless shall not comeФ (Prov 26:1, 2) Ц У ак
снег летом и дождь во врем¤ жатвы, так честь неприлична глупому. ак
воробей вспорхнет, как ласточка улетит, так незаслуженное
прокл¤тие не сбудетс¤Ф; УЕeven one thing befalleth them: as the one
dieth, so dieth the otherЕФ (Eccl 3:19)† - УЕкак те умирают, так
умирают и этиЕФ; УAs thou knowest not what is the way of the spiritЕeven
so thou knowest not the works of GodЕ(Eccl 11:5) Ц У ак ты
не знаешь путей ветраЕ, так не можешь знать дела ЅогаЕФ. Therefore the
obvious way of translating the sentences of the following type is as such: УЕeven
as the holy and the righteous cannot rise beyond the highest which is in
each one of you, / So the wicked and the weak cannot fall lower than the
lowest which is in you also. / And as a single leaf turns not yellow
but with the silent knowledge of the whole tree, / So the wrong-doer
cannot do wrong without the hidden will of you allФ (On Crime and
Punishment). УЕкак
св¤той и праведник не поднимутс¤ выше высокого в каждом из вас, / “ак
злонамеренный и† слабый не опуст¤тс¤
ниже низменного, присущего вам также. / » как лист на дереве не
пожелтеет без молчаливого согласи¤ всего дерева, / “ак преступник не
содеет преступлен褆 без скрытого
умысла вас всехФ. An archaic
syntactic pattern УЕsmth + verb + no moreФ is often found in the
Bible: УAs a whirlwind passeth, so is the wicked no more: but
the righteous is an everlasting foundationФ (Prov 10:25). An identical
construction in УThe ProphetФ УAnd when the unclean shall be no moreЕФ can be
rendered in the following way: У огда же не станет более нечестивых людейЕФ. A relative
clause within a complex sentence is frequently rendered in the Russian
translation of the Bible by means of a participial construction [11]: Уthey
that were in the shipФ Ц Убывшие в лодкеФ; УThe people which sat in
the darkness saw great light; and to them which sat in the region and
shadow of death light is sprung upФ (Mt 4:16) Ц УЌарод, сид¤щий во
тьме, увидел свет великий, и сид¤щим в стране и тени смертной восси¤л светФ. The
same can be done to avoid an unnecessary subordinate clause: У»
если один из вас споткнетс¤ и упадет, дл¤ идущих позади он Ц предостережение
о камне, преграждающем путь. »
упреком упадет он дл¤ идущих впереди, которые, хот¤ быстрее и увереннее в
поступи, все же не сподобились убрать преградуФ. The next
characteristic feature of the УRussian biblical styleФ is omission of the
subject in either subordinate or main clause: У»бо если придете в храм с единственной целью Ц
просить, то ничего не получите. / » если войдете туда, чтобы смиренно
унизитьс¤ пред √осподом, то не возвыситесь. / » даже когда придете молить
√оспода о благополучии других, то не будете услышаныЕ ЕЌо если, в отча¤ньи,
назовете час своего рождени¤ несчастьем, а заботу о плоти Ц прокл¤тием,
начертанном на вашем челе, то отвечу ¤, что только пóтом лица своего
смоете начертанное. Е где будете сме¤тьс¤,
но не растратите весь свой смех, будете рыдать, но не выплачете все свои
слезыФ.† Inversion of noun + pronoun type is another feature that creates the poetic effect and the effect of an epic narration:
УЕѕусть даже пути ее круты и опасныЕ; пусть даже голос ее
развеет ваши мечтыЕ; укрыть наготу свою одеждамиЕ; но в единении
вашем пусть будут пространстваЕ; семена твои останутс¤ жить в моем
теле, / » бутоны твоего завтра распуст¤тс¤ в моем сердце, / » дыханием
моим будет твой ароматЕФ. It is important
to mention that the most frequent types among subordinate sentences are the
clauses of time, reason and condition. However it is more typical of the
author to use compound sentences. While translating compound sentences
into Russian we more often used conjunction но instead of a: Уне во сне, но на¤ву говорю вамФ, УЕи если
трудитьс¤ без любви, но с отвращениемФ, УучительЕделитс¤ с ними не мудростью,
но скорее Е верой и любовью. / » если он вправду мудр, то не пригласит вас
войти в дом его мудрости, но скорее подведет вас к порогу вашего собственного
сознани¤Ф, etc. * Conclusion
The research
conducted in this paper leads us to a number of significant theoretical
conclusions, and observations of practical nature. First of all, it allowed
us to introduce a more detailed definition of the notion of genre,
the linguistic side of which is of a particular value for the art of
translation: we assume that no effort in stylised writing and stylised
translation is possible without taking into account "the bricks" Ц
material, "tangible" elements of the imitated text Ц words, phrases,
and the way they are syntactically arranged in the text. Although every
exercise in creating an artistic text is an intuitive process predetermined
by aesthetic tastes of a writer, Ц we hope that the results of this research
will allow literary critics to enhance their often intuitive assessments of
the aesthetic qualities and genre peculiarities of a work of fiction with
more "objective" linguistic criteria in their hands. Secondly Ц an
attempt to bring closer together the linguistic and the notional sides of a
literary text in the process of genre analysis opens a range of new
opportunities in linguopoetic studies. Recent developments in the area
revealed the necessity to speak of "linguopoetic typology" of
literary works. We hope that the results of this research may prove useful
for further elaboration of this most important theoretical proposition. The third
result of the paper is more of a practical significance. Our analysis (mostly
the practical side of it Ц an exercise in stylised translation) proved once
again the validity of "stylistic comparison" of the constituent
linguistic, and notional elements of the text with the aim of establishing
the so-called aesthetic perspective of a piece of artistic writing. Results
of this validation (often conducted intuitively by many writers and readers)
may allow a styliser come to a decision concerning the side of aesthetic
structure of the source text to be imitated. Very often a mere reproduction
of the limited number of secondary, decorative elements of the source text
may be sufficient for the creation of the desired effect in the target text.
It appears therefore, that the process of stylisation often rests on the
estimation of "the necessary and sufficient" volume of imitated
elements the introduction of which in the target text should not blur but
rather add to the expression of this or that work's "aesthetic
core". Other results
of this paper concern particularly Kahlil Gibran's work "The
Prophet". Research has established a connection between this work and
the genres of the ancient literary traditions of the Middle East Ц the Sufi
poetic literary tradition and the Bible. The most vivid traits of the Sufi
tradition were on the notional level: Gibran uses allegories and symbols of
the ship, sleep, flute, wine, veils, Beloved Ц that are typical of the
medieval Arabic and Persian poetry largely reflecting the essence of Sufism.
Biblical symbols can also be found in the book: a sower, vineyard, etc. Some
of the images are shared by both traditions: images of wine and beloved, for
example. The features of
the biblical tradition dominate the lexical and the syntactic levels of the
work: there is a great number of words, expressions, and quotes that can be
associated with the Bible: prophet, prayer, chastisement, righteous,
season, communion, to deliver unto oneТs hand, the sweat of your brow, to
become a stranger unto something, a den of thieves, a divided house, verily,
etc. The effect of an elevated narration is created through the use of
literary, archaic and poetic words: mariner, pinion, raiment, oftentimes,
to perish, ether, to abide, etc. In terms of
syntax there were found figures of speech traditional for Oriental poetics
(not solely for the Bible), they are: polysyndeton, lexical and syntactic
parallelism, inversion, amplification, contraries, and rhetorical questions.
The use of the modal verb shall is also a sign of the biblical
influence on УThe ProphetТsФ style. Thus we expose
the authorТs conscious intention to reproduce biblical style which he
considered the best framing for his spiritual ideas. Our analysis of
the source text and practical exploration of the text in the course of
translation allowed us to work out the following core stylisation devices for
the adequate rendering of Gibran's text in Russian: -
finding equivalents for the biblical words and stock phrases with the
help of the Russian Translation of the Bible such as: verily -
воистину/истинно, the sweat of your brow Ц потом лица своего, etc.; -
using the archaic and literary words: curse written upon your brow
Ц прокл¤тье, начертанное на вашем челе, for Ц ибо, complex object Ц дабы,
etc.; -
establishing the corresponding syntactic patterns between the English
and the Russian Translations of the Bibles, such as even asЕ, soЕ; asЕ,
soЕ - какЕ, такЕ; inversion of noun + pronoun and predicate +
subject types; omission of the subject in either the subordinate or
relative clauses; -
preserving when possible the elements of the authorТs individual
style, such as rhythm and alliteration: a fetter and a fouling
of mind Ц нечистые путы, что оплели ваш
разум. * Bibliography
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’азрат »на¤т ’ан, ”чение суфиев (сери¤
У—уфийское посланиеФ) Ц ћ.: —фера, 1998. 67.
’афиз, Ћирика. Ц ћ.: √ослитиздат, 1963. 68.
„ернец Ћ.¬. Ћитературные жанры (Literary Genres) Ц
»здательство ћосковского ”ниверситета, 1982. 69.
„уковский .». »скусство перевода (The Art of Translation) Ц Academia,
ћосква Ц Ћенинград, 1936. 70.
Ўвейцер ј.ƒ. “еори¤ перевода. —татус,
проблемы, аспекты (The Theory of Translation. Status, Problems, Aspects) Ц
ћосква УЌаукаФ, 1988. 71.
1001 ночь (избранные сказки) Ц ћосква,
У’удожественна¤ литератураФ, 1975. * Internet
Links:
1.
http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm 2.
http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/gibran/ 4.
http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/12/13/specials/gibran.html 5.
http://www/armory.com/~thrace/sufi/poems.html
7.
http://www.arabiannights.org/index2.html 8.
http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jrcole/gibran/papers/papers.htm
†перевод ≈лены Ѕочаровой ƒ » сказала тогда јльмитра: У„то скажешь ты о
Ћюбви?Ф » подн¤л он голову и посмотрел на людей, и
воцарилось молчание. » проникновенным голосом заговорил он тогда: огда любовь манит вас, следуйте за ней, ѕусть даже пути ее круты и опасны. » когда крыль¤ любви обвивают вас, не противьтесь
ей, ѕусть даже меч, скрытый под ними, может ранить вас. » когда Ћюбовь говорит с вами, верьте† в нее, ѕусть даже голос ее может разве¤ть ваши мечты, ак северный ветер превращает в пустыню цветущий
сад. * Ћюбовь и коронует, и распинает вас. ќна и помогает вам расти, и обрезает ваши ветви,
чтобы ускорить их рост. ќна поднимаетс¤ к самой верхушке кроны и ласкает
ваши нежнейшие ветви, трепещущие в солнечном свете; ќна спускаетс¤ к вашим корн¤м и провер¤ет,
насколько крепко они сид¤т в земле. * ак кукурузные початки собирает она вас. «атем молотит, чтобы† оголить вас до основани¤. ѕросеивает, чтобы освободить от шелухи. –азмалывает, пока не превратит вас в белую муку.
«атем вы Ц м¤гкое тесто в ее руках; ј после Ц любовь поручает вас св¤щенному огню,
чтоб стали вы св¤щенным хлебом дл¤ св¤щенной трапезы √оспода. * ¬се это проделает с вами Ћюбовь, дабы познали вы
тайны своего сердца и знанием этим приобщились к сердцу самой ∆изни. * Ќо если, убо¤вшись, станете искать в Ћюбви лишь
поко¤ и удовольстви¤, “огда лучше вам укрыть наготу свою одеждами и
уйти с молотильного тока любви ¬ мир, где не бывает ни зимы, ни лета, и где
будете сме¤тьс¤, но не растратите весь свой смех, будете рыдать, но не
выплачете все свои слезы. * Ћюбовь ничего не дает, кроме себ¤, и ничего не
берет, кроме как от себ¤ самой. Ћюбовь никем не владеет и никто не владеет
Ћюбовью; »бо Ћюбовь довольствуетс¤ Ћюбовью. * огда любите, не говорите: У√осподь пребывает в
моем сердцеФ, но говорите лучше: Уя пребываю в сердце √осподаФ. »† не
думайте, что можете править пут¤ми Ћюбви, ибо если Ћюбовь сочтет вас
достойными, то сама будет указывать вам путь. * ” Ћюбви нет иного желани¤, кроме как любить. » если любите и желаете Ц пусть желани¤ми вашими
будут: –аста¤ть и быть, как журчащий ручей, что поет
свою песню ночи; ѕознать боль чрезмерной нежности; Ѕыть раненным собственным пониманием Ћюбви; » истекать кровью охотно и радостно; ѕросыпатьс¤ на рассвете с окрыленным сердцем и благодарить
√оспода еще за один день Ћюбви; ќтдыхать в полуденный час и размышл¤ть о
наивысшей радости Ћюбви; ¬озвращатьс¤ в вечерний час домой исполненным
благодарности; » засыпать с молитвой о возлюбленном в сердце и
хвалебной песнью √осподу на устах. В “огда јльмитра заговорила снова и спросила: Уј
что ты скажешь о Ѕраке, учитель?Ф » тот отвечал: ¬месте были вы рождены и вместе останетесь вы на
веки вечные. “ак будет и в ту пору, когда белые крыль¤ смерти
разбросают ваши дни. » даже в безмолвной пам¤ти √оспода вы пребудете
вместе вовеки. Ќо в единстве вашем пусть остаютс¤ пространства,
» пусть меж вами танцуют ветры небес. * Ћюбите друг друга, но не превращайте любовь в
узы. ѕусть лучше будет она волнующимс¤ морем меж
берегами ваших душ. Ќаполн¤йте чаши друг друга, но не пейте только
из одной чаши. ƒелитесь друг с другом хлебом, но не ешьте
только от одного куска. ѕойте и танцуйте вместе, и радуйтесь, но пусть
каждый из вас будет одинок, ѕодобно тому, как струны на лютне отсто¤т друг
от друга, хот¤ вместе издают звуки одной мелодии. ќтдавайте друг другу сердца, но не так, чтобы
один был хоз¤ином другого. »бо только ∆изнь владеет вашими сердцами. Ѕудьте близки, но все же не слишком р¤дом: »бо колонны в храме сто¤т на рассто¤нии, ј дуб и кипарис не растут в тени друг друга. В » спросила тогда женщина с младенцем на руках:
У„то скажешь ты о ƒет¤х? » тот отвечал: ¬аши дети Ц не ваши дети. ќни Ц сыны и дочери жизни, что
жаждет собственного продолжени¤. ¬ами они рождены, но не от вас, » хот¤ с вами живут они, Ц вам не принадлежат. * ћожно подарить им свою любовь, но не мысли, »бо у них есть собственные мысли. ћожно дать жилище их телам, но не душам, »бо души их обитают там, где завтрашний день, и куда
вам не попасть даже в своих мечтах. ћожно подражать им, но не пытайтесь сделать их
подобными себе. »бо ∆изнь движетс¤ только вперед, » вернуть вчерашний день невозможно. ¬ы Ц луки, посылающие вперед живые стрелы. Ћучник видит метку на тропе бесконечного, и изо всех
сил нат¤гивает тетиву, чтобы стрелы ≈го полетели быстро и далеко. –адуйтесь, когда Ћучник сгибает вас своей рукой; »бо ќн любит не только быструю стрелу, но и верный
лук. В —просил тогда старик, хоз¤ин гостевого дома: У„то
скажешь ты о ≈де и ѕитье?Ф. » тот отвечал: O, если бы мог человек существовать, довольству¤сь запахом земли или,
подобно цветку, пита¤сь солнечным светом! Ќо раз должен он убивать ради пищи, и отрывать
новорожденных от молока матери ради утолени¤ жажды, пусть станут
св¤щеннодействием его поступки. » пусть стол его будет алтарем, на котором
приносит он в жертву невинных и чистых обитателей лесов и равнин во им¤ того,
что еще чище и невиннее в человеке. * огда станешь убивать животное, обратись к нему
в сердце своем так: У—ила, что умерщвл¤ет теб¤ сейчас, настигнет и мен¤, и
мен¤ поглотит она, как и сила, поглотивша¤ теб¤. »бо закон, что отдает теб¤ в руки мои, предаст
мен¤ руке еще более могущественной. ровь тво¤ и мо¤ суть живительный сок, питающий
небесное древо. * ј когда надкусываете ¤блоко, так обратитесь к
нему в своем сердце: У—емена твои останутс¤ жить в моем теле, » бутоны твоего завтра распуст¤тс¤ в моем
сердце, » дыханием моим будет твой аромат, » во все времена мы будем радоватьс¤ вместеФ. * ј осенью, собира¤ урожай с виноградников, так
говорите в сердце своем: У» ¤ виноградник, и плоды мои тоже будут
собраны, чтобы сделать из них вино; »,† как
молодое вино, ¤ буду хранитьс¤ в вечных сосудахФ. ј зимой,†
когда откроете вы сосуд с вином, пусть в сердце вашем поетс¤ песн¤ за
каждую чашу; ¬споминайте в песне и осенние дни, и
виноградник, и виноградный пресс, выжавший сок. В » спросил тогда землепашец: „то скажешь ты о “руде? » тот отвечал: “рудитьс¤ Ц значит следовать ритму «емли и ее
ƒуши. »бо
жить в праздности Ц значит стать чужим дл¤ времени и выйти из шестви¤ жизни,
что направл¤етс¤ в величии и гордом смирении к бесконечному. * «а работой вы Ц флейта, сквозь сердце которой шепот
часов превращаетс¤ в музыку. то из вас осталс¤ бы тростниковой дудочкой,
немой и беззвучной, когда все вокруг поет в унисон? * ¬от вам всегда говорили, что труд† Ц прокл¤тье, а вс¤ка¤ работа Ц† несчастье. Ќо ¤ говорю вам, что за работой воплощаете вы
часть великого замысла «емли, предначертанного вам дл¤ исполнени¤. “от, кто неустанно трудитс¤ Ц воистину любит
жизнь, » тот, кто любит жизнь в труде, Ц познал
величайшую тайну жизни. Ќо если, в отча¤нии, назовете час своего
рождени¤ несчастьем, а заботу о плоти Ц прокл¤тьем, начертанном на вашем
челе, то отвечу ¤, что только пóтом лица своего смоете
начертанное.† * ¬ас также учили, что жизнь есть мрак, и вы,
утомленные, вторите тем, кто сам утомлен. » ¤ скажу вам, что жизнь на самом деле есть
мрак, когда нет стремлени¤. Ќо вс¤кое стремление слепо, когда нет знани¤. » вс¤кое знание тщетно, если нет труда, » вс¤кий труд бесцелен, когда нет любви. Ќо когда трудишьс¤ с любовью, то становишьс¤
ближе к самому себе, и к тому, кто р¤дом, и к Ѕогу. * »бо что значит трудитьс¤ с любовью? Ёто значит ткать полотно нит¤ми своего сердца,
как если бы возлюбленна¤ должна была носить платье из этого полотна. Ёто значит быть влюбленным и строить дом, как
если бы возлюбленна¤ должна была жить в этом доме. Ёто значит с нежностью се¤ть семена и с радостью
убирать урожай, как если бы возлюбленна¤ должна была вкусить собранные плоды. Ёто значит вдыхать в создаваемые вещи частицу
своей души » знать, что души благословленных √осподом сто¤т
вокруг и наблюдают за вашей работой. „асто слышал ¤, как говорите вы, словно во сне:
У–езчик по мрамору, воплощающий в камне частицу души, благороднее того, кто
пашет землю. » тот, кому послушны краски радуги, предстающие
на холсте в образе человека, достойнее того, кто плетет сандалии дл¤ наших
ногФ. Ќо не во сне, на¤ву, говорю вам, что ветер одинаково
ласков и с гигантскими дубами, и с самой низенькой травинкой. » только тот велик, кто любовью своей превращает
голос ветра в сладкозвучную песню. * “руд Ц это ставша¤ зримой любовь. » если трудитьс¤ без любви, но с отвращением, то
лучше оставить свою работу и, сид¤ у ворот храма, просить пода¤ни¤ у тех,
кому труд в радость. ѕотому что, если печь хлеб с равнодушием, он
будет горек и утолит голод лишь наполовину. » если выжимать виноградный сок с неохотой, в
вине проснетс¤ ¤д. » если петь, подобно сонму ангелов, но
ненавидеть пение, Ц† души людей
останутс¤ глухи к голосам дн¤ и звукам ночи. » тогда спросила кака¤-то женщина: У„то скажешь
ты о –адости и ѕечали?Ф » тот отвечал: ѕод маской печали всегда скрываетс¤ радость. » часто колодец, откуда раздаетс¤ сейчас† ваш смех, был полон ваших слез. ƒа и может ли быть иначе? „ем шире пустóты, оставл¤емые в вашей
душе печалью, тем больше радости смогут они вместить. Ќе была ли чаша, что наполнена вашим вином,
обожжена в печи горшечника, » лютн¤, что услаждает ваше сердце, не вырезана
ли при помощи ножа? огда вы радуетесь, загл¤ните вглубь своего
сердца, и вы увидите, что радуетесь тому, что прежде печалило вас. огда вы печалитесь, снова вгл¤дитесь в свое
сердце, и вы увидите, что, воистину, плачете о том, что некогда было вашей
отрадой. * то-то скажет: У–адость сильнее печалиФ, а
кто-то возразит: Уѕечаль сильнее радостиФ. Ќо говорю ¤ вам: они неразлучны. ѕечаль и
радость приход¤т вместе, и когда одна сидит за вашим столом, помните, что
друга¤ дремлет сейчас на вашей постели. * ¬оистину, человек подобен весам, на одной чаше
которых радость, а на другой Ц печаль. “олько когда в душе вашей пусто, весы неподвижны
и наход¤тс¤ в равновесии. огда же хранитель сокровищ кладет на них злато
и серебро, одна чаша должна неизменно перевесить† другую. В »
спросил ткач: У„то скажешь ты об ќдежде?Ф » тот
отвечал: ћного
прекрасного скрываетс¤ за вашей одеждой, однако под ней не укрыть того, что в
вас безобразно. »
хот¤ ищите вы в одежде своей источник личной свободы, в ней найдете вы
источник рабства. я бы
желал, чтобы солнце и ветер ласкали не ваши одежды, но вашу кожу. »бо
дыхание жизни Ц в солнечном свете, а десница жизни† Ц† в ветре. * ¬от
говор¤т одни: У“о был северный ветер, соткавший нашу одеждуФ. » ¤
скажу, да, то был северный ветер. Ќо
станком его был стыд, а нит¤ми его Ц м¤гкие сухожили¤. »
когда работа его завершилась, он рассме¤лс¤ в лесу. ѕомните,
что скромность есть щит ваш от глаз нечестивых. огда
же не станет более нечестивых людей, „ем
окажетс¤ ваша скромность? Ќечистыми путами, что оплели ваш разум. »
помните: «емле отрадно чувствовать шаги ваших босых ног, и жаждут ветры
поиграть вашими волосами. В »
попросил тогда торговец: У—кажи нам о том, как ѕокупать и ѕродаватьФ. » тот
отвечал: У«емл¤ преподносит вам свои плоды; и если научитесь принимать их, то
не будете нуждатьс¤. »бо в
обмене дарами «емли познаете достаток во всем и насытитесь. Ќо
если не будет в нем любви и сердечной справедливости, одних† обу¤ет жадность, других† же постигнет голод. * огда
вы, труженики морей, полей и виноградников, встретитесь на рыночной площади с
ткачами, гончарами и собирател¤ми пр¤ностей, ¬ызовите
главного духа земли, чтобы спустилс¤ он к вам и осв¤тил весы и мерила, по
которым определ¤ют ценность того или иного товара. » не
позвол¤йте принимать участие в обмене люд¤м с пустыми руками, которые расплат¤тс¤
за ваш труд своими словами. “аким
люд¤м говорите: У»дите
с нами на пол¤ или отправл¤йтесь с брать¤ми нашими в море и закидывайте свой
невод. »бо
земл¤ и море будут одинаково щедры как с вами, так и с намиФ. * »
если придут певцы, танцоры и флейтисты Ц также приобретите от их даров. »бо
они тоже собиратели плодов и благовоний. » пусть то, что принос¤т они, не
создано из материи, дары их будут оде¤нием и пищей дл¤ вашей души. * »
перед тем, как покинуть рынок, убедитесь, что никто не ушел с пустыми руками.
»бо
главный дух земли не сможет спокойно почивать на ветре, пока нужды последнего
из вас не удовлетворены. В »
тогда заговорила женщина и спросила: У„то скажешь ты о Ѕоли?Ф » он
сказал: Ѕоль
Ц это прорыв оболочки, что сковывает ваше сознание. ѕодобно
тому, как сем¤ плода должно раскрытьс¤, чтобы росток его увидел солнце, так и
вы должны познать боль. »
если бы сердца ваши сохранили способность изумл¤тьс¤ чудесам, что денно
преподносит вам ваша жизнь, то боль удивл¤ла бы вас не меньше, чем радость. »
смена времен года в вашем сердце была бы так же привычна дл¤ вас, как приход
весны или осени на ваши пол¤. »
безм¤тежным оставалс¤ бы взгл¤д ваш, устремленный сквозь зимы вашей печали. * »щите
источник боли в самих себе. »бо
боль Ц горькое снадобье, которым доктор внутри вас врачует вашу больную
сущность. ј
посему Ц доверьтесь доктору и примите лекарство его в молчании и спокойствии; »бо
руку его, пусть т¤жела и груба она, направл¤ет нежна¤ рука Ќезримого, »
пусть чаша, что подносит он к губам вашим, обжигает их, помните, она
вылеплена из глины, смоченной св¤щенными слезами √ончара. В »
спросил муж: У„то скажешь ты о —амопознании?Ф »
сказал он в ответ: —ердца
ваши хран¤т в молчании секреты дней и ночей. Ќо
уши ваши жаждут услышать то, что ведомо вашему сердцу. ¬ы
желаете облечь в слова свои помыслы. » не
терпитс¤ вам коснутьс¤ пальцами нагого тела своих мечтаний. * » это
хорошо. —крытый
родник души вашей должен пробить себе путь и, журча, устремитьс¤ к морю, »
тогда глазам вашим предстанет сокровище, подн¤тое с бездонных глубин вашей
души, »
пусть не будет таких весов, что определили бы вес этого неведомого клада. » не
пытайтесь измерить глубину своего познан褆
шестом и грузилом. »бо
человек подобен морю Ц бескрайнему и неизмеримому. Ќе
говорите: Уя познал истинуФ, но скажите лучше: Уя познал одну из истинФ. Ќе
говорите: Уя нашел путь душиФ, но: Уя встретил душу, идущую по моему путиФ. »бо
путь души пролегает по всем тропам. »
путь ее Ц не пр¤ма¤ лини¤, и не растет душа, подобно тростнику, ƒуша
раскрываетс¤, подобно тому, как цветок лотоса распускает свои бесчисленные
лепестки. В »
спросил тогда учитель: „то
скажешь ты об ”чении? » тот
отвечал: Ќи
один человек не сможет открыть вам того, что уже лежит в полудреме на заре
вашего сознани¤. ”читель,
прогуливающийс¤ в тени храма со своими учениками, делитс¤ с ними не
мудростью, но скорее своей верой и любовью. »
если он и вправду мудр, то не пригласит вас войти в дом его мудрости, но
скорее подведет вас к порогу вашего собственного сознани¤. јстроном
может рассказывать вам о своем понимании мироздани¤, но он не сможет передать
вам своего понимани¤. ћузыкант
может напеть вам мелодию, что слышитс¤ во всем, но он не сможет дать вам ни
слуха, чтобы уловить ритм, ни голоса, чтобы вторить ему. »
тот, кто силен в науке цифр, может поведать вам о царстве мер и веса, но не
сможет проводить вас туда. »бо
видение одного человека не одалживает свои крыль¤ другому. ѕодобно
тому, как каждый из вас Ц единственный в сознании Ѕога, так каждому из вас
надлежит быть одиноким в познании Ѕога и в понимании «емли. В »
спросил тогда один из старейшин города: У„то скажешь ты о ƒобре и «леФ. » тот
отвечал: ќ
добром в вас ¤ могу говорить, но не о злом.†
»бо
что есть зло, как не добро, измученное голодом и жаждой? ¬оистину,
испытыва¤ голод, добро ищет пищу даже в темных пещерах, и мучимое жаждой,
утол¤ет ее мертвой водой. * ƒобрый
человек Ц единое целое. Ќо и
не будучи единым целым человек не зол. »бо
дом, разделившийс¤ в себе Ц еще не вертеп разбойников; это просто дом, где
нет согласи¤. »
корабль, штурвал которого сломан, может бесцельно скитатьс¤ по морю, полному
опасных рифов, но все же не пойти ко дну. * ¬ы
добры, когда стремитесь поделитьс¤ частицей себ¤. Ќо и
не злы, если ищите пользы дл¤ самих себ¤. »бо в
стремлении к собственной выгоде человек есть корень, что врос в землю и сосет
ее грудь. орню
не скажет плод, УЅудь, подобно мне, спелым и сочным, и щедрым в своем
обилииФ. »бо
если плоду предназначено отдавать, “о
назначение корн¤ Ц брать. ¬ы
добры, когда в речи своей свободны от сна, Ќо и
не злы, если во сне ¤зык ваш бормочет бессмыслицу. »бо
даже нестройна¤ речь надел¤ет силой слабый ¤зык. * ¬ы
добры, когда твердым и решительным шагом идете к своей цели. Ќо и
не злы, если направл¤етесь к ней прихрамыва¤. »бо
даже тот, кто хром, стремитс¤ только вперед. Ќо
тот, кто силен и быстр, не должен сдерживать шага ради калек, счита¤ это
про¤влением доброты. Ќе знают
границ и числа ваши добрые поступки, но и ваше бездействие Ц еще не признак
злой натуры »бо
человеку свойственно быть медлительным и ленивым. ∆аль,
что олень не может научить быстроте и стремительности черепаху. * “о
хорошее, что присуще всем вам, кроетс¤ в желании обрести своЄ гигантское УяФ. Ќо в
одних желание это Ц неистовый поток, мчащийс¤ к морю и несущий секреты холмов
и песни лесов. ¬
других же оно Ц мелкий ручей, что тер¤етс¤ в собственных изгибах и
извиваетс¤, и медлит, пока не достигнет мор¤. ѕусть
же не говорит тот, кто желает многого, тому, кто желает малого, У„то медлишь
ты и спотыкаешьс¤?Ф »бо
истинно добрый человек не спрашивает нагого: У√де твое платье?Ф и не задает
вопроса бездомному: У акое несчастье постигло твой дом?Ф В »
спросила тогда служительница храма: У„то скажешь ты о ћолитве?Ф » он
изрек им в ответ: ¬ы
читаете молитву, когда оказываетесь в отча¤нии и нужде. Ќо
как бы хотел ¤, чтобы молились вы и в наивысший момент своей радости, и в дни
своего благополучи¤! * »бо
что есть молитва, как не растворение в Ѕоге? »
если успокоение ваше в том, чтобы излить мрак души своей во мрак космоса, то
радость ваша в том, чтобы выплеснуть наружу занимающуюс¤ зарю своего сердца. »
если рыдаете, когда душа призывает вас к молитве, душа ваша, плача, будет
побуждать к ней снова и снова, пока не засмеЄтесь. ¬о
врем¤ молитвы вы отрываетесь от земли, чтобы встретитьс¤ с теми, кто тоже
молитс¤ в этот же час, и кто недос¤гаем, когда нет молитвы. ѕотому
приходите в этот незримый храм лишь ради великой радости и сладостного
приобщени¤. »бо
если придете в храм с единственной целью Ц просить, то ничего не получите. »
если войдете туда, чтобы смиренно унизитьс¤ пред √осподом, то не возвыситесь. »
даже когда придете молить √оспода о благополучии других, то не будете
услышаны. ѕросто
войдите в невидимый храм. * ћне
не научить вас словам молитвы. √осподь
внемлет словам вашим лишь тогда, когда —ам говорит вашими устами. » мне
не научить вас молитвам морей, лесов, и гор. »бо вы,
дети гор, лесов, и морей, сами отыщете эти слова в своих сердцах. —тоит
вам только прислушатьс¤, и в безмолвной ночи вы услышите их голоса: У√осподь
наш, наше окрыленное ¤, вол¤ “во¤ повелевает в нас. ∆еланием
“воим желаем мы. «ов
“вой внутри нас превращает ночи, которые от “еб¤, в дни, которые от “еб¤
также. ћы не
можем просить “еб¤ о чем-либо, ибо “ы знаешь нужды наши прежде, чем они
рождаютс¤ в нас: “ы
есть нужда наша; и, ода𤤠нас частицей себ¤, “ы даешь нам все необходимоеФ. В »
тогда отшельник, который раз в год приходил в город, вышел вперед и спросил:
У„то скажешь ты об ”довольствии?Ф »
сказал он в ответ: ”довольствие
Ц песнь, дарующа¤ свободу. Ќо не
сама свобода. Ёто
цветение ваших желаний, но не их плод. Ёто
бездна, взывающа¤ к вершине, Ќо не
камень на дне и не облако в вышине. ”довольствие
Ц птица, готова¤ вылететь из клетки, но не пространство, заключенное за ее
пруть¤ми. ¬оистину
удовольствие Ц освобождающа¤ песнь. » ¤
бы желал, чтобы песнь эту пело все ваше сердце; Ќо
чтоб не забылось оно и не потер¤ло сеᤆ
в звуках песни. * “от,
кто молод Ц ищет удовольстви¤, как если бы в нем был смысл всей жизни; и
таким достаютс¤ упреки и осуждение. я же
не упрекаю и не осуждаю их. я бы
желал, чтобы искали они. »бо
не только удовольствие будет их наградой. ≈сть
у удовольстви¤ семь сестер, и сама¤ младша¤ из них прекраснее всех
удовольствий. –азве
не слышали вы историю о человеке, который копал землю в поисках съедобных
кореньев, и нашел сокровище? * »
тот, кто стар, вспоминает об изведанных†
наслаждени¤х с чувством раска¤нь¤, как если бы это были проступки,
совершенные в опь¤неньи. –аска¤нье
же Ц смущение разума, но не очищение его. “акие
пусть вспоминают об удовольстви¤х с благодарностью, как если бы то была
пам¤ть о богатом урожае. Ќо
если в раска¤нии лежит утешение их, путь утешатс¤. * »
есть среди вас такие, кто не молод уже дл¤ поисков, и не стар еще дл¤
воспоминаний; Ќо
кто в ужасе пред тем и другим избегают удовольствий, дабы не забыть о душе и
не осквернить ее. » в
этом есть радость их. » они
тоже найдут сокровище, хот¤ дрожащими руками разрывают землю в поисках
кореньев. —кажите
мне, что может осквернить душу? ќскорбл¤ет
ли соловей своей песнью тишину ночи, а светл¤к своим полетом Ц звезды? »ли,
может, огонь и дым вашего очага обременительны дл¤ ветра? —читаете
ли дух свой спокойным озером, которое можете тревожить веслом? „асто,
отказыва¤ себе в удовольстви¤х, вы лишь накапливаете† неутоленные желани¤ в тайниках своей души.
Ќо
кто знает, может то, от чего отказываетесь сегодн¤, познаете завтра? »бо
даже тело ваше помнит о том, что наследует, и о положенном ему, и вам не
обмануть его. ј
тело Ц это арфа души, »
зависит от вас, извлечете ли из нее сладкую песню, или бессв¤зные звуки. * » вы
спрашиваете сейчас в сердце: У ак отличить то, что в удовольствии хорошо, от
того, что в нем пагубно?Ф »дите
на пол¤ свои и в сады ваши, и там узнаете вы, как отрадно собирать пчеле
нектар с цветка, »
цветку отрадно отдавать пчеле нектар. »бо
цветок дл¤ пчелы Ц бьющий источник жизни, ј
пчела дл¤ цветка Ц посланница любви, » что
дл¤ пчелы и цветка возможность дарить и собирать нектар Ц то дл¤ них
потребность и высша¤ радость. * ∆ители
ќрфалеза, будьте же в радост¤х своих подобны цветку и пчеле. В »
тогда јльмитра сказала: У“еперь спросим мы о —мертиФ. » тот
отвечал: ¬
назначенный час познаете вы тайну смерти. Ќо
как познаете ее, если не будете искать в сердце самой жизни? —ова,
чьи глаза слепы днем, никогда не раскроет тайны† солнечного света. ≈сли
на самом деле предстоит вам узреть дух смерти, распахните свое сердце
навстречу жизни. »бо
жизнь и смерть Ц суть едины, как едины река и море. * ¬
глубине своих надежд и желаний кроетс¤ ваше безмолвное знание того мира. » как
дремлющие под снегом семена, сердце ваше мечтает о приходе весны. ƒоверьтесь
мечтам, ибо в них сокрыта дорога к вечности. * „то
страх ваш пред смертью Ц дрожь пастуха перед лицом владыки, что намерен
наградить его из своих рук. Ќе
радуетс¤ ли пастух, несмотр¤ на дрожь свою, что будет носить на себе печать
королевской милости? » все
же не страшитс¤ ли он дрожи своей больше? * »бо
что значит —мерть Ц как не сто¤ние нагим на ветру и та¤ние в лучах солнца? » что
значит не дышать более Ц как не освобождение дыхани¤ от стесн¤ющих вдохов, „тобы
взлетело оно и растворилось и, свободное, искало Ѕога? * “олько
испив из реки безмолви¤, сможете вы запеть. »
только достигнув вершины горы, начнете вы свое восхождение. »
только когда члены ваши в земле обрат¤тс¤ в прах, будет искусен ваш танец. |
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Russia, 119899
Moscow, Vorobyovy Gory, The Lomonosov Moscow State
University, 1st Humanities, †Faculty of Philology,
Department of
English Linguistics, Room 1046, Tel: + 7 (095) 939-2036, Fax: +7 (095)
939-51-14 E-mail: marklen@online.ru
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